The socio-cultural and geographical context

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utilities are state owned, and a typical problem for these is debt due to unrealistic tariffs and subsidized agricultural connections (Nouni et al. 2009, Bhattacharyya 2010, Joseph 2010).

The opening up for non-state actors is also present in the DDG program of Ministry of Power. There are provisions for license free generation and distribution of electricity from stand-alone and off-grid systems in rural areas and management of rural distribution by local governmental bodies, cooperative societies, non-governmental organizations, franchisees and others (Dubash 2007). Tariffs for such systems are not regulated. It was hoped by the Ministry official and solar experts interviewed that the program could involve the private sector through franchisee models for off-grid areas through competitive bidding with 90%

capital subsidy and a small operational subsidy. An informant in Ministry of Power criticized the Sunderban solar mini-grids for not being commercially profitable and thereby not replicable by private sector actors, and he criticized the provision of grants to off-grid power plants in West Bengal through MNRE financing.

This section has identified some of the context that facilitated and influenced efforts to develop new models for solar power supply in India, including the shortcomings of the conventional electricity regime and relevant elements of the socio-technical system (or niche) for solar PV in India. WBREDA’s solar mini-grids in the Sunderban Islands emerged from these broader framework conditions in India.

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The Sagar Mela is a large, yearly festival in Sagar Island visited by people from all over India, and contributes to larger economic opportunities on this island than on surrounding islands.

The tropical, warm and humid monsoon climate shapes the agricultural conditions along with the extreme tide differences and floods of saline water from the Bay of Bengal, sometimes affecting the fertility of the land. Recurrent cyclones also affect people’s livelihood struggle in this delta landscape.

There are large socio-economic differences between people, although most families own a piece of land. The people below the poverty line (in India officially called BPL-people) comprises of almost 30-35% of the total population in the region (TERI 2009). The social structure is primarily patriarchal, and men tend to control land and other material and financial assets (Winther 2014).

The settlement pattern is dense in the villages, with several hundred households living within a radius of few kilometers. The cultural landscape in these flat islands is impressively shaped by the hands of the people, changed from a flat plain to a varied surface. Elevated roads have been built widely, some of them also functioning as embankments towards the sea.

Many of the families that own land have dug their own pond for harvesting rainwater next to the house, and grow trees around the houses and between the farm fields. Ownership of land, ponds and houses is a sign of relative wealth compared to those without such assets.²⁴

Literacy varies between villages, but the average in the two districts that comprise the Sunderban region (South 24 Pargana and North 24 Pargana) is 84.95% and 78.57%

respectively.²⁵ Schooling is mainly administered by the state, while a few schools are private, owned by missionaries or others. The number of schools and colleges has increased over the past few years, and people have given higher priority to education. Health facilities are provided by the government and missionaries, and are scarce. The Sunderban region is described as poorly developed compared to other parts of West Bengal (Government of West Bengal 2004).

The political and administrative organization in the Sunderban comprises of 19 blocks in the two districts mentioned above. The block is the lowest administrative unit of the provincial government. The lowest political unit is the Gram Panchayat, a self-government of elected representatives at the village level. Each Gram Panchayat can cover several villages.

For example, the 47 villages on Sagar Island (which constitutes a block) are covered by 9 Gram Panchayats.

5.2.2. The selected islands and villages, energy needs and energy use

From the installation of the first solar mini-grid in Kamalpur village on Sagar Island in 1996, WBREDA implemented the 17 solar mini-grid and solar hybrid mini-grid projects on seven islands up to 2012 in the Indian part of the Sunderban Islands. Twelve of these power plants

24 The houses are constructed in a way that makes them optimal for temperature regulation. The thatched roofs touch the ground so that less heat enter the huts, and the walls are made thick with sediments and thereby keep the interiors of the houses cool.

25 Statistical Handbook West Bengal 2011, Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Government of West Bengal

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were located on the two islands selected for this study, Moushuni Island (2 power plants) and Sagar Island (10 power plants).

Figure 8. Sagar and Moushuni Islands in the Indian part of the Sunderban Islands. Source: Google maps.

Sagar Island is a larger island than Moushuni (which has only 3 villages), and is less remote.

Sagar Island has a population of about 200,000 (Shrank 2008), and Moushuni Island has a population of about 24,000. Sagar appeared to have more wealth than the other islands in the area and had a paved main road and a public transport system. On Moushuni, the common modes of transport were walking by foot, bicycle and rickshaw and the markets were fewer and smaller than on Sagar Island. The six villages selected for this research were Bagdanga and Baliara on Moushuni Island and Kayalapara, Khashmahal, Natendrapur and Mrityunjoynagar on Sagar Island. These varied in time since power plant implementation, size and location on the island. The power plants in these villages were installed between 1996 and 2005, and the number of customers for the power supply in each village varied between 70 and 300, according to WBREDA’s records of payment.

The main energy carriers used in the Sunderban before and along with the use of the solar power supply were kerosene for lighting, and firewood, cow dung and rice husk for cooking purposes. Torches and candles were also used. A few diesel generators were used in Sagar Island mainly serving a few businesses along the main road of the island.

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