Coding

According to Brinkmann & Tangaard (2015), the process of coding creates more oversight in the data material. Shortly summarized, during the coding process text fragments from transcriptions are coded with a keyword. By using a keyword, expressions can be identified, compared, contrasted, or counted to discover how prominent they are. The codes are data-driven, which means they evolve from the material itself, rather than based on existing theories.

After the first stage of coding, the codes are categorised. Comparable codes are placed in categories. From here subcategories can be linked to main categories. Out of these categories, the analyses and interpretation will start.

In this research, the coding strategy often used in grounded theory has been utilized to extract meaning from the data. The researcher started the coding process by going through the five transcriptions of the interviews. Then these transcripts were open coded, each statement was numbered and coded with a word that resembles the content of the statement. Coding words are often based on jargon or everyday language. In this research, it was important to reflect the

36 experience of the women and therefore coding words were based on everyday language to secure the essence of the statement and keep close to the lived experience. After all the transcriptions had gone through the open coding process, these codes were then placed in broad categories. These categories contained statements that had similarities in contents. It is however important to keep the categorizing broad and to ensure to have as many categories as the material allows, such that the data material remains its original richness and that the researcher does not develop a tunnel vision. Open coding is used to promote the broadness and diversity in the codes and not to attempt to create a collective impression yet (Charmaz, 2008).

After mapping all the codes present in the data material, the researcher has started the selective coding of the material. In selective coding, the main concerns of the participants are in focus.

Categories that are deemed irrelevant are removed, while the (key) categories are analysed further. The researcher sketches a clearer picture of the important main categories and the subcategories attached to them. During the selective coding, the researcher also identified the consequences of the (social) actions taken and which outcomes these actions have resulted in.

Different inner and outer factors can influence the social actions taken as well as the outcome of these actions (Hjälmhult, Giske & Satinovic, 2014).

The last step that the researcher has taken in their analysis is called theoretical coding. In the theoretical coding, the focus is on establishing the relationship between the different categories and their characteristics. The theoretical coding part is often described as the most difficult one.

Whereas the codes during open-, and selective coding portray the actual content of the statements, the codes during theoretical coding portray a possible relationship between categories or the glue that holds it all together. In the ideal situation the theoretical coding will continue until additional data do not offer any new categories, but only support the existing theory (Hjälmhult, Giske & Satinovic, 2014).

During the whole process of analysing, interpretation plays an important role. Firstly, the researcher interprets what the participants have stated, then categorises them on what they interpret to be similarities or differences, and lastly attempts to interpret the meaning and the consequences of these experiences with the help of theories. The strategy of interpretations must have as goal to broaden the analysis, to include a wider range of considerations, and to help the researcher to reach a holistic view of the data material. There must also be recognition for the fact that the result of the study represents a combination of the researcher’s framework, the data provided and this data being interpret (Hill, Thompson & Williams 1997).

37 The study unearthed many interesting aspects concerning the everyday social activities of immigrant women. During the coding process, it became natural to divide the codes under two subjects: social activities and social network. In the table below the essential categories with their subcategories per subject are summarized.

Theme

Social activity Main category Subcategories

Activities organised by (volunteer) organisations (formal activities)

- Student activities - Language café

Non-formal activities – friends or acquittances

- House visits - Outdoor activities

Reasons for social activity - Language - Mental health - Practical - Inclusion Obstacles in social activity - Language

- Culture differences/pace of life

- Weather

Personal agency - Perseverance

- Pro-active - Adaptation Social network

Norwegian network - Practical/Language - Inclusion

- Superficial

38 - Uncomfortable/Difficult International network - Language

- Practical

- Comfortable/Easier - Substantial

National network - Relaxing

- Information - Unwished for - Substantial

Wishes for social network - (More)Norwegian network - Bigger network

- Satisfied

Although it was natural to divide the data material into two different themes during the coding process, this division made it more challenging when it was time to start connecting the data, interpreting them, and developing a theoretical framework. To show the connection between the data the following figure might shed some light.

Figure 6: Visual oversight over the connection in the coded data material

Social activities

Formal activities

(voluntary org.) Norwegian network

International network

Non-formal activities

(friends & family) National network

39 3.4 Ethical reflections, personal reflections, and reflexivity

In this paragraph, the researcher will go over the ethical issues connected to this research. In this chapter ethical reflections will be discussed as well as the topic of reflection and reflexivity.

The author of this study will go deeper into her own connections to the topic of the research and what consequences this could have.

3.4.1 Ethical reflections

Baarda’s (2019) guidelines regarding executing ethical research have been central in safekeeping the ethical credibility of this study. Several ethical aspects in this study asked for a deeper reflection and thought process.

As this research targets a population that can be understood as vulnerable, it was important to take extra care in the recruitment of the participants. An employee of the recruiting organisation, who had more background information about the women, made sure that the women approached would be up to participating in the research. If the risks of negative consequences for individuals are too high, they would not be considered as informants for the research project.

Participants need to be informed accordingly about the content of the research project, what is expected of them as participant and what will happen with the results. Participants must sign consent forms. Since the research project focuses on a potentially vulnerable group, written consent can lead to problems. It is important to check carefully (optionally with the help of a translator) if the informants have understood the consent forms and the content of the research project (Hovland et al, 2009). Since all the women partaking in this project did not have Norwegian as a first language, fully informed consent became an important aspect. To ensure that the women were aware of the requirements of the project, what would happen to their data, and their rights regarding participation in the study, this information was repeated on several occasions. First, the women were informed about the above-named topics in an introduction about the research. After the women notified the researcher about their interest in participating, this information was once more given when individual contact was established. At the start of the interview, the women signed the consent form after first reading through it themselves and then going through the form together with the researcher. All women expressed understanding of the goal of the research, the handling of data, and their rights and went on to sign the consent form before the interview commenced.

Since the project deals with personal information which is not part of the medical-, or health professionals research, the research project is reported to and approved by the Norwegian centre

40 for research data. Approval has been given for the interview guide, information pamphlet, and form of consent, which can be found in Appendix I, II, III, IV, and V.

3.4.2 The researcher’s reflection & reflectivity

According to Malterud (2011), research must contain systematic and critical reflection, opposed to random impressions or self-confirming statements. When a researcher works on a phenomenon one can expect and demand that the data, findings, interpretations, and conclusions are put in a bigger context to which the researcher has defined themselves. When knowledge is shared, other parties can contribute with critical reflections. Critical reflections can lead to new (critical) questions, discussions, and opinions around the subjects of social participation and integration. These new questions, discussions, and opinions are according to Malterud (2011) just as valuable if not more, than the outcome of the research itself.

Aside from the demand and expectation of reflection during the research, one can also argue that the reflectivity of the researcher plays a role. Reflectivity and reflection, although sounding alike, are defined differently. Gjeitness & Tronvoll (2011) describe (red) reflection to involve careful and critical thinking about one’s own practice, while reflectivity distinguishes itself by including more radical assessments and evaluations connected to the moral and personal dimensions in one’s practices.

For such an awareness-raising process to occur, the researcher must be willing to reflect critically over their work, life experiences, and qualities that can influence their relationship with the theme of the research and the informants (Del Busso, 2007). According to Malterud (2011), it is human to be guided of one’s own motives, imagination, and judgements, but for the research to deliver anything else than that there must be space for an open mind with doubts, reflections, and possible unexpected conclusions. The researcher must have their cards on the table regarding their understanding of the research theme and findings. The readers then have can understand how the researcher has reached their conclusions, even when the reader with their perspective might have interpreted the results differently.

For me, as a researcher in this study, it was important to reflect on my own relationship to the theme of the research and my relationship with the participants. As being an immigrant woman myself, with my own experiences within social activities in daily life, it was important to differentiate between me and my informants. To lessen my impact on the informants I have been very aware to ask open questions during my interviews wherever this was possible. After each interview, I have reflected on how I experienced this interview and my role in it. As I have

41 experienced the participants of this study being very open and willing to talk about the subject, it helped me to avoid asking closed and guided questions. Here it also helped that the material we talked about was kick-started by the pictures the women took themselves and consequently I also experienced that it was easier for the women to take the lead in the interviews.

Many say that qualitative researchers who are inspired by the phenomenological approach must start by bracketing their preconceived beliefs, opinions, or notions about the phenomenon they study. Although Zahavi (2019) states that the process of bracketing is not required for a researcher involved in phenomenological research, I felt I needed to inquire about my own experiences and (pre)judgements about the topic of the study to limit the possibility of me influencing the participants of the study. On the other hand, my own experiences have also helped in understanding the women on another level than somebody who would not have been in the same situation. This was especially helpful in the situations where the women found it difficult to express themselves in a foreign language. When they could not find the words to describe their experiences it was easier for me to guess which direction they wanted to go in and inquire after this. By reflecting on and being aware of my own placement and involvement in the phenomenon, I believe I have turned this into more of an advantage than a disadvantage for the study.

3.5 Quality of the study

In this paragraph, a deeper look is taken into the validity and reliability of this study. The researcher opens for discussions around the use of these terms in the case of qualitative research.

3.5.1 Validity & Reliability

Validity is concerned with the meaningfulness of the research components. The researcher is concerned if they are measuring what they intended to measure (Drost, 2011). Validity is often split between internal validity and external validity.

Internal validity describes in which grade the research tools used, such as the method used, interview questions, and the researcher’s reference frame, are suitable to develop the knowledge related to the research question. Internal validity reviews the validity of the research itself. For example, does an IQ test measure intelligence? (Malterud, 2011; Drost, 2011). There are many challenges regarding internal validity and Bollen (1989) claims that it is nearly impossible for a researcher to defend the validity of their research with full certainty, however, it is possible to develop strong support for the validity of their measures. Some challenges regarding validity include history, maturation, resting, instrumentation, selection, rivalry, and demoralisation

42 (Drost, 2011). In this study, the researcher can defend the validity in different aspects.

According to Malterud (2011) maintaining a strategic selection, strengthens the internal validity. In this study, the researcher could work with a gatekeeper who could ensure that the participants were suitable for the topic of the research. The fact that the topic of the study (social activity in everyday life) is broadly formulated, could also have ensured that the participants deliver knowledge that is connected to the research.

External validation is more concerned with the generalisability of the results of the research, would the study give the same results in another setting? Generalizing the results can focus on other people, other settings, or other times. One approach is to vary settings and analyse for the results in each setting (Drost, 2011). External validity forms an issue in this study. The population is of such a small proportion that it is difficult to call the results generalisable.

Additionally, the goal of the study was never to reach generalisable results, but to portrait the stories of some of the women within the research population. However, it is fully possible that by repetition of the research at another time, a different place, or with different people will bring forth the same results. The fact that several research projects have come forward with similar results as this study also strengthens this belief.

3.5.2 Criticism on the terms of validity and reliability in qualitative research While studying the topics of validity and reliability to describe and include them in this thesis, an interesting debate started to emerge. Various articles criticized the position or the use of the term’s validity and reliability in qualitative research. As the researcher also experienced issues in expressing herself in these terms, it became relevant to take up this debate.

To start the discussion, Winter (2000:8) quotes from Watling:

“Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist epistemology. While they may have undoubtedly proved useful in providing checks and balances for quantitative methods, they sit uncomfortably in research of this kind, which is better concerned by questions about power and influence, adequacy and efficiency, suitability and accountability.”

This indicates that the terms of validity and reliability originate from science developed in a positivist era, and therefore perhaps less applicable to studies that do not operate from the same guidelines. Validity and reliability can be relevant and even essential to social studies when these studies are executed in a quantitative matter but lose these criteria for qualitative research (Healy & Perry, 2000). According to Stenbacka (2001), reliability is misleading in qualitative research, she argues that if any qualitative research is judged by the criterion of reliability, no

43 study would be judged to be good (Golafshabi, 2003). The fact that the quality of the study should be judged is not disputed, but it is argued that different terms might be more applicable when it concerns studies originating from a non-positivistic and a qualitative perspective.

Alternative criteria to judge scientific rigour seem appropriate (Sandelowksi, 1993), and Lincoln & Guba (1986) offer such an alternative set of criteria where they replace validity and reliability by truth-value, consistency and neutrality, and applicability. Noble & Smith (2015) offer a methodological strategy for qualitative researchers to credit their work. The following strategies are often utilised:

- Accounting for personal biases which might influence findings.

- Acknowledging biases in sampling and continuous critical reflection of methods to ensure depth and relevance of the data and analysis.

- Good record keeping demonstrating clear decision-, and interpretation processes.

- Establishing comparison and differentiation cases to ensure different perspectives.

- Including comprehensive verbatim descriptions of participants’ accounts to support the findings.

- Showing clarity in the thought process in data analysis and interpretation processes, - Collaborating with other researchers to reduce bias.

- Validation from participants by inviting them to comment on the view depicted on the phenomena,

- Usage of different methods and perspectives to produce a more holistic set of findings.

In terms of this research, the researcher has been able to comply with several of the criteria stated above. An extensive approach to reflection during the whole of the research has been enabling to avoid personal biases as well as biases connected to data collecting, sampling, and analysing. The support of a supervisor has helped to gain a different and deeper understanding and avoiding tunnel vision. Moreover, a literature study has portrayed perspectives that both confirm and challenge the research findings. Lastly, inspired by this newfound knowledge the researcher plans to check her findings with the participants after completion of the study.

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4. The social activities and networks of immigrant women

Analysing the data material concerning immigrant women’s social activities in everyday life, five topics stand out. Respectively, this analysis will focus on (1) social activities within voluntary organisations, (2) the Norwegian network and its benefits and challenges, (3) social activities and the international network, (4) social activities and the national network, (5) grounds and wishes for a social life and lastly a (6) summary to sum it up. As the topics of social activities and social networks often are highly intertwined, some overlap between the categories may occur.

4.1 Social activities and voluntary organisations

A big part of the immigrant women’s social activity plays out in voluntary organisations. Many of the women frequent voluntary organisations and take part in varied activities.

When talking about the women’s social activities it is striking to see how much of this contact takes place within voluntary organisations. All women that were interviewed were familiar with at least one voluntary organisation in the town. How much the women visited voluntary organisations varied widely, from once with family members to several days a week.

The social activities seem to function on different levels. One level for the woman is to go out and meet others. To a lesser degree, voluntary organisation activities are creative, or leisure based. One of the women expressed that she used to attend meeting places for youngsters before but had grown past the age limit for attendance and mentioned missing the activities they would

The social activities seem to function on different levels. One level for the woman is to go out and meet others. To a lesser degree, voluntary organisation activities are creative, or leisure based. One of the women expressed that she used to attend meeting places for youngsters before but had grown past the age limit for attendance and mentioned missing the activities they would

In document “If one gets scared or shy, one cannot find what one wants. If one does not get scared or shy, one can find what one wants.” An insight into immigrant women’s social activities and social networks in daily life (sider 49-0)