Problems with categorisation

There are, of course, some borderline cases as far as the categorisation goes. The verb LAUGH, for instance, is put in the category of verbs that contains extra-linguistic information. It would also be fair to place this verb in Category 1, with the verbs that have a paralinguistic function, such as CRY or SHOUT, since LAUGH also says something about the voice of the speaker. And although the verbs with a paralinguistic function describe the manner in which the utterance is

spoken, it is clear that verbs like SOB, CRY and SNEER also involve the speaker’s mimic and facial expression, as in the case of the verbs with an extra-linguistic function.

Some of the verbs placed in Category 3a, neutral verbs, are also borderline cases.

Obviously, verbs like TELL and SAY are neutral and belong in this category, but verbs like

STATE and POINT OUT can sometimes carry information about the speaker’s attitude to what is being said; thus, they could also be placed in Category 3d. However, when placing the verbs in the different categories, one has to consider the whole context in which the reporting verbs occur.

To sum up, the verbs in Category 1 reflect the tone of the utterance. The verbs in Category 2 are verbs where the mimic decides how an utterance should be perceived. While Category 3a contains verbs that appear most neutral, Category 3d contains verbs that show the speaker’s attitude towards what is being said. Categories 3b and 3c have to do with speaker interaction, while Category 4 contains reporting clauses where the speaker is unknown.

Wennerström believes that there are certain environments in which the expressive reporting verbs are likely to occur. Firstly, the verbs tend to occur in a realistic and humorous environment, but rarely in a grave environment. A description of intonation, mimics and body language which follows an utterance ‘contributes to making the description of the characters more alive and real’ (1964:42, my translation). Secondly, a strong and detailed emphasis on the characters’ way of speaking does not belong in all styles. When there is a redundancy of information regarding how an utterance is performed, the character who is speaking will appear ‘slightly vulgar or naïve’ (1964:43, my translation). Thirdly, she claims, that

the “big” style avoids too garish reporting verbs and prefers to let the direct speech speak for itself through its content, so that the reader can sense the strong emotion, the hidden objective, the expressive voice. (1964: 43, my translation)

In other words, according to Wennerström, the expressive reporting verbs are not likely to occur just anywhere; certain requirements must be fulfilled for it to be natural to use an expressive reporting verb.

3.7 EXPANSIONS

The reporting clause will sometimes contain more than a noun or pronoun and a reporting verb; it may also contain an ‘expansion’ (Biber et al 1999:922). There are two main types of expansions: adverbials (eg loudly, suddenly and firmly), and prepositional phrases (eg in a soft voice, with a broad grin). The main purpose of the expansions is to modify the reporting

verbs. The verbs most often modified are the most neutral ones, such as SAY or COMMENT. The modifiers can change the meaning of a text radically:

‘Good,’ he said smilingly.

‘Good,’ he said grudgingly.

‘Good,’ he said anxiously.

‘Good,’ he said nervously.

Hence, an expansion is defined in this context as an adverbial or a prepositional phrase which expresses the mode of the speech situation.

In general, expansions are more common in fiction than in news articles, ‘particularly with reporting clauses in final position’ (Biber et al 1999:925), possibly because there is a greater need in fiction to ‘specify the manner and circumstances of speaking’ (ibid). In news articles, the focus is more on the content of the direct speech than the manner or circumstance in which it was uttered.

The expansion can be placed either to the left or to the right of the reporting verb in the reporting clause. Many reporting clauses do not have an expansion at all, which is the case in the majority of reporting clauses in the Longman corpus, which Biber et al studied

(1999:923). When a reporting clause has an expansion, however, it is usually a right expansion, ‘especially with reporting clauses in final position’ (ibid). Extract [51] shows a reporting clause in initial position with a left expansion, and extracts [52] and [53] show reporting clauses in final position with a right expansion, in [52] realised by a prepositional phrase and in [53] by an adverbial:

[51] Smiling, Nancy said to herself, “Dad depends on my intuition”. (Nancy Drew 1959:1) [52] “Oh dear!” she murmured in disgust. (Nancy Drew 1959:91)

[53] “We can’t trust anyone”, Tobias said flatly. (Animorphs 1992:80)

When a reporting clause contains an expansion, SAY is most often the reporting verb used, but as [54] shows, other verbs are also possible:

[54] “You!” her brother shouted disbelievingly. (Hardy Boys 1959:101)

3.7.1 Adverbials

It is my opinion that the adverbials that modify reporting verbs can be divided roughly into three different sub-categories, depending on their function in the reporting clause, as in Figure 3.6:

What kind of adverbials Examples

Group A Adverbials which have to do with the sound of the speaker’s LOUDLY, SHARPLY,

voice SOFTLY and SHRILLY

Group B Adverbials which reveal something about the speaker’s own attitude towards the utterance,

IRRITABLY, GRUDGINGLY

and IMPATIENTLY

Group C Adverbials that work more as conversational devices SUDDENLY and QUICKLY

Figure 3.6: Three groups of adverbial expansions

There are borderline cases when it comes to categorising reporting verbs, as mentioned in Section 3.5.2.3, and I am aware that there are borderline cases when it comes to categorising the adverbials as well. Figure 3.5 is meant as a simple outline, to illustrate that adverbials have multiple purposes as expansions in the sentence. Extract [55] is an example of an adverbial which indicates what the speaker’s voice sounds like, extract [56] illustrates the speaker’s attitude towards what is being said, and [57] is an example of an adverbial that works more as a conversational device:

[55] ‘Shoo!’ said Mr. Dursley loudly (Harry Potter 1997:10)

[56] Nancy said reassuringly, “Judy may be able to win a scholarship”. (Nancy Drew 1959:6) [57] ‘Oh, no, sir’, said Hagrid quickly. (Harry Potter 1997:64)