Shifting legitimizations of large dams: A review of current debates on India and Turkey
4. Analysis and Discussions
4.4 Prospects for Water Resources Management in Tanzania
The future of water in Tanzania is at stake due to a number of reasons facing the water sector.
First Integrated Water resources Management (IWRM) paradigm, which underpin current water reforms in Tanzania focus on the use of statutory legal systems to regulate the use of water resources. However Tanzania operates under plural legal systems, where the diverse customary systems are relied upon in the implementation of IWRM. Very few human activities are regulated by statutory laws alone. Neglect of customary laws may cause IWRM implementation to fail or will have negative consequences for individuals and groups who were better served by customary-based systems. (Maganga, 2003)
Second, the institutional capabilities in construction and management of water facilities require an adequate number and appropriate professional staff at all levels. With the ongoing reforms in the country, the government is in the process of putting in place an institutional structure that clearly defines roles and responsibilities of stakeholders at all levels, so as to enhance water supply service provision. At the same time, capacity of human resources in different institutions is still weak to address the challenges facing the service delivery as a whole. This shortfall is more felt at the local government and private sector levels than at the central government level.
Water scarcity is already a major problem in Tanzania. Climate change is projected to further reduce water availability in many water scarce regions especially in the central parts of Tanzania, Dodoma, Singida, and Shinyanga, due to increased frequency of droughts, increased evaporation and changes in rainfall patterns and run-off. The current trend of climate variability will lead to lack of water for domestic uses, agriculture and production of hydroelectric power. Wildlife and other animals also will suffer the consequences. Water scarcity will lead to hardship in implementing IWRM based on its principles of equity,
BOX 3: CHALLENGES FOR ACHIVEMENT OF MDTs
To achieve the MKUKUTA and then Millennium Development Targets (MDTs) in Tanzania, US$2 billion is required. This is according to Water Aid estimates. This amount includes US$1436 million for water supply improvements and about US$520 million for the improvements of sanitation services by 2015. These costs translate to roughly US$96 million per annum (mainly from public funds, be it government, development partners or the private sector) for water supply and about US$35 million per year for sanitation services (mainly from households investments). Taking the current expenditure trends as the norm that amounts to only US$12 million per annum actual expenditure in the country in the 2002/2003 financial year. Subsequently the sector needs to boost of about US$84million per year if the MDTs are to be met (Mashauri, 2005). On the other hand, at the current rate of disbursement of funds to the district council (i.e about US$0.11 per person without access to clean and safe water supply) it would take the councils more than 100 years to meet their MDTs.
119
efficiency and in treating water as economic good. Also water scarcity will accelerate conflicts over water resources, for example water conflicts on the Usangu plains.
5. Conclusion
This paper has traced the creation and evolution of institutions for water management in Tanzania, and emphasised how the strengthening of institutions responsible for irrigation and water resources management from national, basin, and catchment levels to the end user is essential for sustainable implementation of integrated water resource management. It also explored how customary water resources management was affected by historical evolution of water management institutions in Tanzania. The challenges of meeting the Millennium Development Goals target on water issues under the prevailing institutions arrangement were also outlined.
A number of challenges affect water resources governance in Tanzania and the major challenge is lack of mechanisms to better align the formal and informal institutions in water resources management. The mechanism to align both formal and informal institutions is important because the roles played by both institutions are important in water management and they are fully interdependent. Although Tanzania has a new Water Act of 2009 with a number of reforms, this act still fails to stipulate clearly the role of customary water use rights. The Act recognises customary rights but it requires registration and formalisation to the basin water office.
Moreover, water sector reforms were coupled with reforms in other sectors such as irrigation, agriculture and privatisation of assets previously owned by the government. This has led to a number of conflicts over water resources. This paper calls for stakeholders’ involvement in sector reforms. Also there should be an institutional framework that harmonises the water resources management issues in the irrigation master plan, agricultural sector development strategies and the issues of privatisation.
References
Boesen, J., Maganga, F., and Odgaard, R., (1999).Rules, Norms, Organizations and Actual Practices- Land and Water Management in the Ruaha River Basin, Tanzania in Granfelt. CARE Tanzania Country Profile,
DANIDA (1998) Smallholder Irrigation Improvement: Agricultural Sector Program Support.
Project Preparation Report. Dar es Salaam.
Dungumaro, E. W., (2006). Improving Water Resources Management in Tanzania. IJEAM-RAGEE Vol.11 April 2006, page 33-41.
Huggins, C. (2003) Rural Water Tenure in Kenya and Tanzania: Changing Tenure Patterns, Legal Regimes and Community Responses. OSSREA Development Research Series, No.
5
Maganga, F. (2002) Incorporating Customary Laws in Implementation of IWRM: Some Insights from Rufiji River Basin, Tanzania. Paper presented at 3rd WaterNet
120
Symposium, ‘water Demand Management for Sustainable Development’, Dar es Salaam, 30-31st October 2002
Maganga, F., Kiwasila, H, L., Juma, I .H. and Butterworth, J.A (2003). Implications of customary norms and laws for implementing IWRM. Findings from Pangani and Rufiji Basins. Water Symposium. Gaborone
Maganga, F.P., Butterworth, J.A and Moriarty, P. (2001). Domestic water supply, competition for water resources and IWRM in Tanzania: A review and discussion paper. 2nd WARFA/Waternet symposium: integrated water resources management: theory practice and cases; Cape Town. 30-31 October.
Mark J. Mwandosya (2008), Why Developing Countries Need Dramatic Increase of Water Resources Proclivity, The paper presented at International Seminar on Energy and Resource Productivity. Santa Barbara, California, USA.
Mashauri, D.A (2005).Complete circle in the provision of water supply and sanitation v services: the failure of PSP in Practice. Paper presented at 6th WATERNET/WARFSA/GWP SA symposium, Ezulwini, Swaziland, November 2005 Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective
Action, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sokile. C.S., Kashaigili. J., and Kadigi, R. M. J., (2003). Towards an integrated water resources management in Tanzania: the role of appropriate institutional framework in Rufiji Basin. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 28, 1115-1023.
Subsidiary Legislation of 1974. Government Notice No. 347 of 1994 under section 38(2) of the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974. Dar-es-Salaam: The United Republic of Tanzania
The Water Ordinance of 1959. Dar-es-Salaam: The Governor of Tanganyika.
United Republic of Tanzania ( 2002). National Water Policy. Ministry of Water.
United Republic of Tanzania (1999). National Water Resources Management Policy.
Ministry of Water.
United Republic of Tanzania, (2004) National Water Sector Development Strategy (2004), Ministry of Water and Livestock.
URT (2005), Mkakati wa Kuondoa Umasikini na Kukuza Uchumi (MKUKUTA), VPO.
Van Koppen,B; Sokile,C.S.; Hatibu,N; Lankford,B.A.; Mahoo,H; Yanda,P.Z.(2004). Formal Water Rights in Tanzania: Deepening the Dichotomy? Colombo, Sri Lanka: Interna-tional Water Management Institute.
Water Ordinance of (1948), Chapter 257. Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printers.
Water Ordinance, (1923).
Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act 42 of 1974. Dar-es-Salaam: The United Republic of Tanzania.
Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 10 of 1981. Dar-es-Salaam: The United Republic of Tanzania.
Water Utilization (General) (Amendment) Regulations. 2002. Dar-es-Salaam: The United Republic of Tanzania
Water Utilization (General) Regulations of 1997. Dar-es-Salaam: The United Republic of Tanzania.
World Bank (1996). Staff Appraisal Report, Tanzania. In “River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project.” Report No. 15122-TA. Washington:
Agriculture and Environment Operations, Eastern Africa Department.
121