Developmental pathways

Development was defined by Ford and Lerner (1992) in the following manner:

“Individual human development involves incremental and transformational processes that, through a flow of interactions among current characteristics of the person and his or her current contexts, produces a succession of relatively enduring changes that elaborate or increase the diversity of the person’s structural and functional characteristics and the patterns of their environmental interactions while maintaining coherent organization and structural-functional unity of the person as a whole.” (p. 49).

In this definition Ford and Lerner (1992)took into account systematic change, successive change, aptive and adaptive change, and change that takes place through the interactions of current conditions. In their view development is open-ended and they account for different implications. Development can be seen as a never-ending possibility. Because persons and contexts can change in unexpected ways, each individual’s developmental pathway may also take on an unexpected course. When development is looked upon as open-ended and a product of current conditions Ford and Lerner conclude that a person’s future is not prisoner of his or her past. When development is defined as elaborative change, it helps create new possibilities for people. A developmental pathway will open up possibilities that did not exist before and may lead to gains or losses in future possibilities. Since the future is difficult to predict, it is not possible to know which of an individual’s capabilities may be most valuable in the future. Their definition cannot be understood only in terms of person or context characteristics, but requires a theory of human development where person and environment factors interact dynamically to produce developmental change. Relations between these factors expose the basic process of development. The last implication the authors pointed to is that their definition identifies two basic processes, incremental and

transformational change processes, and these can both produce continuities and discontinuities in development (pp. 50-51).

Under ideal circumstances development leads to growth and well-being. Even in a not so perfect world, children can develop into well functioning adults depending upon resilience and the support they receive. On the other hand certain circumstances can also lead to risk factors, problematic relationships, disruptive and/or deviant behavior and in turn affect school outcome and job possibilities. This points to different developmental pathways. The Norwegian government is concerned about these issues and depicted their thinking in what they called the ‘Learning elevator’, presented at a hearing conference on June 13^th, 2006 called Grunnleggjande dugleik for alle or Basic competence/skills for all by the Department of Education (my translation).

Language developm ent

”The Elevator” to lifelong learning starts before school age

(Presentation by Anette Skalde, Kunnskapsdepartementet, June 13th, 2006)

Remedial action Success in higher education and work

Learningintensive jobs

Complete secondary school

Good grades in elementary school

Figure 2 – “The elevator” to lifelong learning

As we can see two pathways have been outlined, one leading to success while the other points to risk factors. The emphasis is on the development of

language and social skills from an early age on. Remedial actions have the strongest effect when initiated at an early stage illustrated by darker arrows at the bottom and more translucent further up. The government accentuated that life long learning begins before school age (which in Norway is six). The developmental aspect is also present with the building blocks or levels in the

‘Learning elevator’ building on one another both in positive or negative directions. An obvious goal will be to get as many children as possible away from the escalating effects of the risk factors and into the ‘Learning elevator’

towards success. Teachers in daycare and school and the quality of their work are important factors in reaching such a goal. Quality elements are the teachers’ understanding and beliefs about children and learning, how they build positive relationships and practice teaching, and utilize learning opportunities in different contexts. Another quality element is the teachers’

knowledge about developmental aspects and how children’s minds work at different ages/stages.

Drawing upon Sroufe and Greenspan, Pianta (1999) has pointed to six developmental key themes that are important in early childhood and emerge at different ages. These themes become organized within later patterns of adaptation, and thus affect us the rest of our lives. Pianta emphasized the important role of adult-child relationships in regulating a child’s adaptation to each theme, and went on to say: “Understanding these themes, their organization, and the role for context is critical to understanding the role of relationships with adults in development for all children” (p. 50). In addition to parents, teachers can be ‘significant others’ to all children they teach, and maybe play an even more important role in contact with children at risk.

A limited summary of the key themes highlighted by Pianta (1999, pp. 51-63) will be addressed in the following text :

The regulation and modulation of physiological arousal and joint attention (pp. 53-54)

This is a period where the newborn and the caregiver get to know each other and have to tolerate more complex situations including stimulation and activity, rest, soothing, feeding and care, and an increasing amount and quality of joint attention. The interaction between caregiver and infant prepares the ground for relational and behavioral patterns. In competent forms

of adaptation, the infant responds to regulations and routines set by the caregiver and regular rhythms are established. In this interaction the caregiver is sensitive towards cues from the infant and responds adequately to the developing child’s needs. Not all dyads develop as smoothly. In some cases where there are less competent forms of adaptation, over- or underarousel may be seen in the infant and consequences can be less predictability, lower interest in interaction, more difficulty in soothing, which in turn can stress the caregiver and affect his or her ability to meet the infant. Maladaptation at this stage and disordered child-caregiver interactions contribute to difficulties later on.

The formation of an effective attachment relationship (pp. 54-56)

A major theme during the second six months in an infant’s life and throughout childhood is the development and maintenance of an effective attachment relationship, which develops “as a consequence of early patterns of interaction, affords the child a sense of security in the context of a relationship, and provides a basis for exploration of the object and the interpersonal world” (p. 54). Important elements in regulating experience, are according to Pianta, adult responsiveness, emotional availability, the use of an effective signaling system, the caregiver’s previous attachment experiences and self-regulation of attention and emotion. When attachment relationships do not develop effectively, the child can react in one of three ways to regulate emotional arousal through contact with caregiver: 1. avoidant, 2. ambivalent, and 3. disorganized. These reaction patterns also appear in the interaction between the child and other adult caregivers, such as teachers. On the other hand, nonparental figures in a different relational context may provide the child with new experiences that enhance the attachment relationship, which in turn can enable the child to use adults more competently. Pianta called attention to research that connects the degree of attachment and children’s later performance in social and learning settings and may explain some of the difficulties that arise.

The development of self-reliance or autonomy (pp. 56-57)

This third theme becomes increasingly more important in the child’s second year and continues through childhood. According to Pianta confidence in self and others are hallmarks of competent adaptation and “The concept of

self-reliance recognizes the relational base of the child’s efforts to meet social and task-related demands and focuses on the child’s use of his or her own and others’ resources” (p. 56). An important part of this is for the child to have a secure base from which to explore and caregivers who accept and tolerate the child’s autonomy efforts while also providing adequate support.

Communication becomes more advanced in this period, but gestural support is still a very important factor. Pianta pointed to the connection between a child’s self-esteem, self-reliance and competence in the classroom, and the challenges he or she will meet there.

The formation of an expanded ability to organize and coordinate environmental and personal resources (pp.58-60)

The fourth theme builds on prior developmental issues as attachment and self-reliance. The child encounters demands that become increasingly more multifaceted and abstract as he or she reaches school age. The intentional and functional use of symbols and words to express ideas, meanings, goals, experiences and interactions, becomes more prominent at this stage and is an important factor in self-regulation. Competent adaptation at this and later periods involves the capacity to modify arousal using accessible resources. In Pianta’s (1999) view: “The emergence of a representational capacity is a fundamental shift through which experience is no longer coded only in behavior but in symbols that can be used” (p.59). He also pointed to the important role that contexts play in supporting the development of representations. Possible problems can be traced to how contexts support this development.

Caregivers who show behavior that is coercive, controlling, negative, power oriented, indicate contexts that do not enhance the representational capacity of a child. On the other hand, interactions between children and caregivers who

”recognize and label the child’s experience, respond to the child’s signals for help or assistance, and allow the child “room” to explore and try alternatives are all styles that encourage a shift to representational processing” (p. 59-60).

Observations of this can be seen in interactions between children and “good”

teachers and according to Pianta reflects how a relationship supports the development of self-regulation.

The establishment of effective peer relations (pp.60-61)

The fifth theme Pianta called attention to is central from preschool age onwards and concerns effective peer relations. These relationships have in common with child-parent relationships that they develop over time and the exchanges become more abstract and representational as the children grow older. Peer relationships are linked to the child’s prior attachment history with significant others. While children with secure attachment adapt well in relation to peers, children with an insecure attachment history adapt more poorly. The same tendency has been documented with children who have had avoidant or anxious-ambivalent attachment in infancy. Drawing upon Birch and Ladd, Pianta (1999) called attention to three relational styles that characterize relationships with teachers, parents, and peers: moving toward, moving against, and moving away, and pointed to the suggestion by Birch and Ladd “that these similarities reflect an integration of experience across relationships and a common set of strategies for organizing interpersonal behavior”(p. 61). When children fail to adapt well concerning peer relationships, this can be a strong predictor of later disorder.

The formation of a sense of self, an effective use of self-control, and the use of abstract symbols (pp.61-63)

The last of the six themes that Pianta called attention to is the formation of a stable sense of self, effective use of self-control and use of symbolic representation. These developmental elements in middle-late childhood build on the child’s prior experiences and relations in different contexts and mutual influences with parents, teachers, peers and others. According to Pianta (1999) they are “key elements of cognitive-academic achievement, cooperation in social groups, and identity” (p. 61) and he called self-regulation a hallmark of competence at this period of late childhood. At this phase peer relations become increasingly more important. Supportive systems and good role models enhance the chances for a child’s well functioning development in accordance with this theme as well. Conversely children with avoidant, resistant or ambivalent attachment relations adapt poorly and develop strategies that do not function that well for the child or in relation to family, peers and teachers.

Children at different ages spend many hours in daycare or school settings every day and teachers and peers play important roles in the lives of each

child. The quality of the relationships and interactions influence the pathways along which children develop. Pianta (1999) described relationships as “the cornerstone of development – they are in large part the infrastructure of school success not only for high-risk children but also for all children” (p. 63).

Both systemic and relational aspects are important factors in helping teachers to help children in direction of positive developmental pathways.

2.4.3 Research on developmentally appropriate practices (DAP)