Human factors in production and logistics systems of the future

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Annual Reviews in Control

journalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/arcontrol

Human factors in production and logistics systems of the future

Fabio Sgarbossa

, Eric H. Grosse

, W. Patrick Neumann

, Daria Battini

, Christoph H. Glock

aDepartment of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NTNU, S.P. Andersens vei 5, 7031, Trondheim, Norway

bJuniorprofessorship of Digital Transformation in Operations Management, Saarland University, P.O. 151150, 66041 Saarbrücken Germany

cDepartment of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria St., Toronto, Canada

dDepartment of Management and Engineering, University of Padova, Stradella San Nicola, 3 36100 Vicenza, Italy

eInstitute of Production and Supply Chain Management, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Hochschulstr. 1, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany

a rt i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 30 January 2020 Revised 9 April 2020 Accepted 11 April 2020 Available online 16 May 2020 Keywords:

Human Factor Ergonomics

Manufacturing Management and Control Decision Support System

Production and Logistics System Industry 4.0

a b s t r a c t

Theway humansworkinproductionand logisticssystemsischanging.Theevolutionoftechnologies, Industry4.0applications,and societalchanges,suchasageing workforces,aretransformingoperations processes. Thistransformationis still a“black-box” for manycompanies,and there arecalls for new managementapproachesthatcanhelptosuccessfullyovercomethefuturechallengesinproductionand logistics.

WhileIndustry4.0emerges,companieshavestartedtouseadvancedcontroltoolsenabledbyreal-time monitoringsystemsthatallowthe developmentofmoreaccurateplanningmodels thatenableproac- tivemanagerialdecision-making. Althoughweobserveanincreasingtrendinautomatinghumanwork inalmosteveryindustry,humanworkersarestillplayingacentralroleinmanyproductionand logis- ticssystems. Manyoftheseplanning modelsdeveloped formanagerial decision support,however,do notconsiderhumanfactorsandtheirimpactonsystemoremployeeperformance,leadingtoinaccurate planningresultsanddecisions,underperformingsystems,andincreasedhealthhazardsforemployees.

Thispapersummarizesthevision,challengesandopportunitiesinthisresearchfield,basedontheexpe- rienceoftheauthors,membersoftheWorkingGroup7(WG7)“Humanfactorsandergonomicsinindus- trialandlogisticsystemdesignandmanagement”oftheIFACTechnicalCommittee(TC)5.2“Manufacturing ModellingforManagementandControl".Wealsodiscussthedevelopmentofthisresearchstreaminlight ofthecontributionspresentedininvitedsessionsatrelatedIFACconferencesoverthelastfiveyears.The TC5.2framework isadaptedtoincludeahuman-centeredperspective. Basedonthisdiscussion,are- searchagendaisdevelopedthathighlightsthepotentialbenefitsandfuturerequirementsforacademia and societyinthisemergingresearchfield.Promisingdirections forfuture researchonhuman factors inproductionandlogisticssystemsincludetheconsiderationofdiversityofhumanworkersandanin- depthintegration ofIndustry4.0 technologiesinoperationsprocessesto supportthe developmentof smart,sustainable,human-centeredsystems.

© 2020TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.

ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense.(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Contents

1. Introduction ... 296

2. Humanfactorsinproductionandlogisticssystems ... 297

3. ManufacturingModellingforManagementandControl... 297

3.1. TC5.2scopeandareasofinterest ... 297

3.2. AHuman-centeredperspectiveofTC5.2... 297

∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NTNU – Norwegian University of Science and Technology Valgrinda, S P Andersens V 37031 Trondheim

E-mail address: fabio.sgarbossa@ntnu.no (F. Sgarbossa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2020.04.007

1367-5788/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license. ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )

3.3. Insightsfrompreviousliteraturereviews ... 298

3.4. InsightsfromIFACconferences... 299

4. ResearchAgenda... 301

4.1. Human-CenteredIndustrialEngineering... 301

4.1.1. Human-centeredworkplacedesignmethodsforindividualizedsolutions ... 301

4.1.2Human-centeredworkplacedesigninthepresenceofassistiveandcollaborativetechnologies... 301

4.1.3. Challengesinhuman-centeredworkingspacedesign... 301

4.2. Human-CenteredModelling ... 301

4.2.1. Age-friendlymodellingforproductionandlogisticssystems... 301

4.2.2. Modellingforproductionandlogisticssystemsinpresenceofcollaborative/assistivetechnologies... 302

4.2.3. Challengesinhuman-centeredmodellinginproductionandlogisticssystems... 302

4.3. Human-CenteredManagement... 302

4.3.1. Managementapproachesinproductionandlogisticssystemstowardsanageingworkforcecommunity ... 302

4.3.2. ManagementprocedureswithHFparadigmsinproductionandlogisticssystemsofthefuture... 302

4.4. Academicandmanagerialinsights... 302

5. Conclusion... 303

DeclarationofCompetingInterest... 304

Acknowledgment... 304

References ... 304

1. Introduction

Operations processesinproductionandlogisticsare important driversofcustomerserviceandcompetitiveadvantageinmanyin- dustries.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatthemanagementofpro- ductionand logistics processeshas attracted theattention of re- searchersformanyyears.Operationsprocesses aretypicallychar- acterizedby ahighamountofmanual humanwork,especially in areassuchasmaterialshandlingandassembly.Despitetheoppor- tunities that the automation of production andlogistics systems offers, many companies still rely on human work in several ar- easduetotheirflexibilityandtheircognitiveandmotorskillsthat machinescannot imitate economicallyyet.Giventhehighimpact theseprocessescan haveon the totalcost ofa company, the fo- cusofpriorresearch inthisareahasbeenonthedevelopmentof mathematicalplanning modelsthat help managers findsolutions fordecision problems that reduce costs (see, for the example of orderpicking,deKosteretal.,2007).

Most planning models that have been proposed to support managerial decision-making in production and logistic systems have, however, neglected the specific characteristics of human workers.Thisoftenleadstounrealisticplanningoutcomesorwork schedulesthatunderperformandmayevenbeharmfultoworkers (Grosse etal., 2015, 2017a).Toguarantee a highlevel ofproduc- tivity andefficiency and to make sure that planning models re- flectrealityasmuchaspossible,itisnecessarytoconsiderhuman factors (HF) indesigning production andlogistic systems to cre- ateworkplaces that are reliable, efficient,andsafe (Battini etal., 2011;Battinietal.,2015).Eventhoughrecentresearchhasstarted tointegrateHFissuesintomathematicalplanningmodelsforpro- duction and logistics, for example by modelling learning effects (Givietal.,2015;GrosseandGlock,2015)orhumanenergyexpen- diture(Battinietal.2017;Calzavaraetal.2019;Fincoetal.,2020), therestillseemstobealargegapintheliterature,highlightedalso byrecentliteraturereviews,concerningthedevelopmentofmath- ematicalplanningmodelsforproductionandlogisticssystemsthat take account of the interaction between the human worker and such systems.The lattercan, unlike theworker, be (strongly) in- fluenced by thesystem designer making itthe preferreddomain forengineeringimprovementefforts.

Generally,HF(including theperceptual,cognitive,physicaland psychosocialaspectsintheworkplace)determinethehumanper- formanceinproductionandlogisticssystems.Thisaspectbecomes morechallenginginlightofanageingworkforce,whichwilllikely puthumanfactors-relatedissuesinproductionandlogistics,such

as the risk of making errors at work or of developing muscu- loskeletaldisorders,ontopoftheagendasinmanycompaniesand internationalstandardsorganizations, such asISO/TC314 “Ageing societies” and the “inclusive workforce” in ISO/CD 23617.

In addition, the concept of Industry 4.0 has become a new trendinindustrialandsystemsengineering(e.g.Liaoetal., 2017; Xuetal.,2018).Thisconcepthasthepotentialtoradicallychange operationsprocessesby virtually integratingexisting physical,in- formation and financial flows using digital technologies along the entire value chain (Pfohl et al., 2015; Ben-Daya et al., 2019; Winkelhaus and Grosse, 2020). While this digital transformation promises increased productivity and profits to companies, there hasbeenlessdiscussiononhowtheimplementationofthesenew technologiesmightaffecthumanworkersinproductionandlogis- tics systems (Kadir et al., 2019). Neumann and Dul (2010) have suggestedthat newtechnology implementationbenefits substan- tiallywhenHFprinciplesareapplied.Thereis,however,littledis- cussion ofwhatthe HFdesign requirementsina highlydigitized workingenvironment mightbeintheIndustry4.0context.Inad- dition,theconsequencesofusingIndustry4.0technologiesthatas- sisthumanworkersintheirmanual work,suchasaugmentedre- ality,adaptable workstations, orcollaborative robots (cobots), are not yet fullyunderstood in terms ofhuman performance, errors, workmotivation,andtechnologyacceptance.

Theaimofthisworkistoprovideavisionoftheresearchchal- lengesand opportunitiesinthe field ofHFin productionandlo- gisticssystemsofthefuture.Theexperiencesoftheauthors,who chairtheWorkingGroup7(WG7)oftheIFACTechnicalCommittee (TC)5.2“ManufacturingModellingforManagement andControl”, supportthediscussion.Thecontributionspresentedduringthelast fiveyearsatIFACconferencesare analyzedtoillustratethedevel- opment ofthisresearch field within the IFACcommunity, andto highlightcurrentchallenges.Basedonaframeworkthatadvocates ahuman-centeredperspectiveofthemainobjectiveofTC5.2,the analysis ofinvited sessions at IFACconferences, andinsights ob- tained from related existing literature reviews, a comprehensive researchagenda isproposed thatsynthesizesthecurrentstate-of- knowledgeandhighlightsthefuturechallengesandopportunities foracademiaandsocietyinthisemergingresearchfield.

The remainder ofthispaper isorganizedas follows.The next section summarizes theimportance ofconsidering HF inproduc- tionandlogisticssystems.Section3givesan overviewoftheob- jectives ofthe WG7andTC5.2offeringthenewhuman-centered perspective.Inaddition,asummaryofpaperspresentedduringthe invitedsessions“Humanfactors inproduction and logisticssystems

System Design

HF in Operaons

Employee Health &

Performance

System Performance

Fig. 1. Model illustrating impacts of HF on system performance.

of the future” at several IFAC conferences is presented. Based on theoutlineofthedevelopmentofthisdisciplineandtheemerging digitaltransformation,aresearchagendaisdeducedanddiscussed inSection4.ThepaperconcludesinSection5.

2. Humanfactorsinproductionandlogisticssystems

The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics (andsynonymouslyHF)asfollows:“Ergonomics(orhumanfactors) is thescientific disciplineconcernedwiththeunderstanding ofinter- actionsamonghumansandotherelementsofasystem,andthepro- fessionthatappliestheory, principles,dataandmethodstodesignin ordertooptimizehumanwell-beingandoverallsystemperformance“

(IEA,2019).Crucialinthisdefinitionistherecognitionthatdesign- ing systems that match human capabilitiescan serve both social and business goals. While most research studies tend to address onlyoneofthesedomainsatatime,areviewofstudiesaddress- ingbothdimensionshasshownthat,inthevastmajorityofcases, the humanand systemoutcomestend to co-vary (Neumann and Dul, 2010; Goggins et al. 2008). They degrade or are enhanced jointlywithattentiontoHFinthedesignofthesystem.Thisrela- tionshipiscentraltothesociotechnicalsystemsviewofengineered systemswhichroseoutofresearchfromthe1970s(VanEijnatten etal.1993)andretainsitscurrencyindealingwithcomplexengi- neeringproblemstoday(Salmonetal.,2018).

HF has been, arguably, a blind spot in engineeringeducation andpractice.Nevertheless,everyengineeringdesignengagespeo- pleinsomewaythroughoutitslifecycle.Someonehastoassemble thedesign,usethedesign,maintainthedesign,anddismantleand recyclethedesignattheendofitslife-cycle;here,wewillusethe umbrella term“user” torefer to all of thesehuman interactions.

Withhumansintimatelyengagedintheengineeredsystemlifecy- cle, it should not be surprising that the HF in the design ofthe systemaffectsultimatesystemperformance(Fig.1).

Designteams in their projects, includinghere industrial engi- neers andoperations managers, determinethe perceptual, cogni- tive,emotional,andmotordemandsontheuser.Ifthesedemands exceed an individual’s capacity, then negative consequences, for both the userand subsequently system performance, can be ex- pected. This chain of effect is illustrated in Fig. 1. The de- sign of the system establishes the HF demands on users that, in turn, will affect both the health and performance of the in- dividual. If HF conditions are good, then user effects can in- clude improved performance due to learning effects as experi- ence is gained (Jaber et al., 2013; Givi et al., 2015). If HF de- mands are excessive, then fatigue, discomfort, and eventual in- juries can be expected. Under conditions of fatigue and presen- teeism (injury and pain experienced while still on the job), de- signers can expect increasesin errors and declines inproductiv- ity(Zhangetal., 2015; LohausandHabermann,2019). Thesehu- maneffectswillsubsequentlyhavenegativeconsequencesonsys- tem performance. System designers, therefore, who do not ade- quatelyconsider the HFofall systemusers intheir system deci- sions, should expect their systems to underperform astheir cal- culations fail to consider the impact of human outcomeson the system.

Thefinancialimpactsof(unaccountedfor)HFeffectshavebeen referred toas“phantom profits” (Roseetal., 2013),where antici-

patedprofitsareerodedbythenegativeconsequences ofpoorHF inthesystemdesign.Newcostingmodelsdevelopedformanufac- turingsystemssuggestthat asubstantial fractionoftotalproduc- tioncostcanbeattributedtoHFinthedesignofthesystem(e.g., Sobhanietal.,2015,Sobhanietal.,2016,Sobhanietal.,2017).Most companies,however,donot fullyunderstandthe costs associated withHFasthesearedistributedwidelyacrosstheaccountingsys- tem. While companies may point to their direct costs associated withinjury andabsence, they donot consider the wide array of indirectcosts associatedwith the rangeof HF problemsthat are

“hidden” withintheaccountingsystem(Roseetal., 2013). Apply- ingHFinthedesignofsystemswillhelpensurethattheseprojects meettheir potential andcan ensurea doublewin frombothhu- manandtechnologicalperspectives.

3. ManufacturingModellingforManagementandControl 3.1. TC5.2scopeandareasofinterest

WG7 “Human factors and ergonomics in industrial and logistic systemdesignandmanagement” wasestablished bytheauthorsin 2015 and ispart of theIFAC TC 5.2 “Manufacturing Modelling for ManagementandControl”.Thisworkinggroupaimsatinvestigating thedevelopmentofinnovativeapproachesfortheintegrationofHF inproductionandlogisticssystemdesign.TC5.2isdevotedtopro- moting the “development of management decision support systems (DSS) in digital, resilient and sustainable manufacturing and supply chainsystems in theeraof Industry 4.0based on a combination of IndustrialEngineering,OperationsResearchandDataScience.”

Inthe TC5.2 vision,all theseDSS models, fromoptimization, knowledge-based models to simulation, focus on the design and management ofmanufacturing systemsandsupplynetworks. Re- cently, emphasis has been put on the developments of Indus- try 4.0-based models to make manufacturing systems and sup- ply chain networks smarter, more sustainable and resilient (e.g., Ivanovetal.,2018).

The contribution of the WG7 to the vision of the TC 5.2 is to introduce and promote human-centered approaches in manu- facturingandsupplychainmodelling,herefocused onproduction andlogisticssystems,basedontypicalindustrialengineeringcon- texts.Thanks tothe developmentsandimplementation oftheIn- ternetofThings(IoT),datacapturetechnologiesandlow-costsen- sors, industrial engineering systems, from production and logis- tics systems to supply networks, can be controlled in real-time (Panetto et al., 2019). Advanced operations research (OR) tech- niquesandmethodshavebeendevelopedtosupportpractitioners inthemanagement ofcomplexsystems.Finally,newdatascience techniques,suchasbusinessanalytics,supplychainandoperations analytics, advanced predictive analytics and simulation and pre- scriptiveoptimization,areabletosolvemorecomplexproblemsin theindustrialengineeringfieldconnectingdifferentlevelsofanal- ysisincludingthe strategic,tacticalandoperational levels (Addo- Tenkorangetal.,2016).

3.2.AHuman-centeredperspectiveofTC5.2

BasedontheTC5.2visionandthedevelopmentsdiscussedin theprevioussections,ahuman-centeredperspectiveofproduction

Fig. 2. Human-Centered perspective of TC 5.2 (adapted from Panetto et al., 2019 ).

andlogistics systemsintheIndustry 4.0era isbriefly introduced below.Then,inthe followingsub-section,an analysisof thecon- tributionsreceivedatseveralsessionsorganizedbytheWG7since 2015willshowhowthetopichasbeeninvestigatedanddeveloped by the international academia attending the relatedIFAC confer- ences(INCOM,MIMandIFACWorldConferences).

The framework shown in Fig. 2 advocates the development ofHuman-CenteredDecision SupportSystems forProduction and Logistics Systems of the Future (Panetto et al., 2019). It is mo- tivated by changes in the perspectives of three main research areas: Human-Centered Industrial Engineering, Human-Centered ModellingandHuman-CenteredManagement.

First, it becomes more and more important to consider the worker in the design phase of the production and logistics sys- temsbyextendingtraditionalindustrialengineeringapproachesto enablethe design of more individualized and customized work- places.HF needto be considered asan importantdesign consid- erationthat can improvesystem productivityandquality aswell asadvanceworkingconditionsandoutcomesforemployeessimul- taneously.HF aspects shouldposemandatory requirementswhen new production and logistics systems are designed. It has been widelydemonstratedthatanintegratedapproachenableswin-win solutions(e.g., Battinietal,2011; Glocket al., 2019; Neumann&

Dul,2010).Recently,thedevelopmentofIndustry 4.0technologies hasstartedtochangethewaysystemsaredesigned.Forexample, the useof motion capture systems andvirtual reality can speed upthedesignphase andallow designersto engageusers atearly stagesof the design process (Sundin & Medbo, 2003). Moreover, they can improvethe accuracyof operationsandergonomics as- sessment allowing a better selection of alternatives (Peron etal., 2020).Industry4.0technologiescanalsoassisttheoperatorsinex- ecutingtheiractivities,reducingtheirworkload(forexamplewhen using cobots), or simplifying cognitive activities (e.g., when us- ing augmented reality orother assistive technologiesin the con- text oforderpicking systems orassembly workstations;see,e.g., Stoltzetal.,2017).

Secondly,newtechnologiesallowthe collectionoflargequan- titiesofdata,and thiscan beused forimproving theknowledge ofthesystemunder study.Newintegrated modellingapproaches

have to be developed and validated using thisdata. These data- driven models should include HF aspects (such as fatigue,work- load, personality, ageing etc.), linking worker health and system productivityandquality.Inaddition,theyshouldalsoconsiderthe use of Industry 4.0 technologies and their impacts on the users acrossthelifeofthetechnology(Calzavaraetal.,2020).

Finally, resulting from the application of advanced OR tech- niques,theintegratedmodelscanbeextendedandappliedatthe management level to find best practices and managerial impli- cations on how to use human resources, how to support work- erswithnewtechnologies, andhow toplan andcontrol human- centeredproductionandlogisticssystems.Theuseofdatascience techniquescan give feedbackto Human-CenteredIndustrial Engi- neering,suchaswhichfactorsaremoresignificant,predictingthe behaviorofthesystemsandthussuggestinghowtooptimizethe designin ordertohaveadaptive andsmarthuman-centeredpro- ductionandlogisticssystems.

3.3. Insightsfrompreviousliteraturereviews

Almost twodecades ago, Boudreauetal.(2003) calledforre- searchthatintegratesinsightsfromhumanresourcesmanagement into operations planning. Since then, publication numbers of re- lated workshave been increasing, and severalreviews exist that surveyedtheliterature withrespectto theconsiderationofHFin operations management. Neumann and Dul (2010), for example, highlightedthegapintheliteraturelinking HFtooperationsper- formance,andtheneedtointegrateHFintooperationssystemde- signwas discussed by Neumann andVillage (2012).De Bruecker etal.(2015) reviewedthe literature onworkforceplanningprob- lems that incorporate workers’ skills, with a special emphasis on realistic planningmodels andusefulsolution techniques.Also with regard to planning models, Grosse et al. (2015) reviewed the literature on order picking, one of the most critical pro- cesses in internal logistics, and discussed how HF can be incor- porated into planning models to achieve more realistic planning outcomesand to improveperformance, quality andworker well- being.Afollow-upstudyofGrosse,Glock,&Neumann(2017a)pre- sentedfurtherevidencethatHFhadlargelybeenignoredinplan- ning models for order picking. Loos et al. (2016) conducted a bibliographic review on the use of ergonomics principles in lo- gistics with a focus on well-being and safety. Otto and Bat- taïa (2017)alsoconcentrated onphysicalergonomicrisks,inpar- ticularmusculoskeletaldisorders,andclassifiedexistingoptimiza- tionapproachesforassembly linebalancing andjobrotation that considerHF.Padulaetal.(2017)foundweakevidencethatjobro- tationcontributestopreventingmusculoskeletaldisorders,astheir reviewindicatedthatonlylittlereductionoftheexposuretophys- icalriskfactorswasachieved.Theydid,however,findpositivecor- relationsbetweenjobrotationandjobsatisfaction.Besidesreviews dealingwithperformanceandphysicalHF,someworksalsolinked HF to production quality. Kolus et al. (2018) examined available empirical evidenceon theimpact ofHF inproductionandwork- stationdesign onproduct quality,highlighting specificHF-related qualityriskfactors,inparticularfatigueasakeyintermediatevari- able. Yung etal. (2020) extended their analysis to examine how humanfatiguehasbeenconceptualizedandmeasuredintheliter- atureandquantifiedthe relationshipbetweenhumanfatigueand qualitydeficitsinproduction.

Focusing on digital technologies, Kadiret al.(2019) presented an overview of the literature on Industry 4.0 that considers HF.

Theyconcludedthat onlyfew workswere publishedonthistopic so far, and that, consequently, more research is strongly needed.

Recently,Calzavaraetal.(2020)reviewedtheliteratureontherole of an ageing workforce in production and focused especially on functionalcapacitiesandonhowtoexploit theexpertiseofolder

Fig. 3. Numbers of papers presented in invited sessions organized by WG7 at IFAC conferences.

workers, as well as howthe implementation of technologiescan assist older workers in production.Di Pasquale et al (2020) also focusedonanageingworkforceandexamineditsimpactsonpro- duction quality, finding a complex relationship modified by both thenatureofthetaskandtheexperienceoftheemployee.

Thisoverviewofexistingliteraturereviewsshowsthatthereis anincreasinginterestininvestigatingHFinanoperationsmanage- ment context;yet,there aremanyfacetsof thismultidisciplinary researchareathathavestillnotbeenexplored.Inlinewiththeob- jective ofthiswork, thenext sectionreviewstheinvitedsessions organizedbytheauthorsatIFACconferencestogaininsightsinto thedevelopmentofworksthatconsiderHFinmanufacturingmod- ellingformanagementandcontrol.

3.4. InsightsfromIFACconferences

WG7 ofTC5.2wasestablishedseveralyearsagobasedonthe commoninterestsoftheleadingmemberswiththemainobjective tosupportthehuman-centeredperspectiveinthedesignandman- agementofproductionandlogisticssystems.Seekingforaparadig- maticchange,ourvisionwasthatindustrialengineeringandoper- ationsmanagementresearchneedsintegratedplanningapproaches thatdonotsolelyminimizecostparameters,butthatalsoconsider theimplicationsonhumanworkers(see,forexample,Grosseetal., 2015;2017a;2017b;Glocketal.,2017a).ConsideringHFinthede- signandmanagementofproductionandlogisticssystemscan,we argue,helpincreaseperformanceandminimizeerrors.Thisresults in higher service levels and, mostof all, can improve the work- ing environmentforemployeesandreduce work relatedillnesses andinjuries.Thus,topromotethisinterdisciplinaryresearchfield, the membersstartedtowork jointlyinpublicationsandresearch projects organizingspecial issuesandinvitedsessions inrelevant journalsandconferences.

ThefirstinvitedsessionwasorganizedatINCOM2015entitled

“Humanfactorsinindustrialandlogisticsystemdesign”.In2018,the title wasrevisedto“Humanfactors inproduction andlogisticssys- temsof thefuture” to accountforcurrentdevelopmentsandchal- lengeswithin ourdiscipline.Thesessionshavebeenverypopular withahighnumberofsubmissions;Fig.3displaysthenumberof papers presented ateach IFAC conference: the15th IFACSympo- siumonInformationControlinManufacturing(INCOM2015)(Ot- tawa, Canada); the 8th IFAC Conference on Manufacturing Mod- elling,Management andControl(MIM 2016)(Troyes,France);the 20thIFACWorldCongress (WC2017)(Toulouse, France);the16th IFACSymposium onInformationControlProblems inManufactur- ing (INCOM2018) (Bergamo, Italy); andthe 9th IFACConference onManufacturingModelling,ManagementandControl(MIM2019) (Berlin, Germany). In total, 54 papers were presented in the in-

vitedsessions.Fortheanalysisofthepaperspresentedinthein- vited sessions at these conferences, we used the framework of Glock,Lange,Grosse,& Das (2017b)formethodologiesemployed, andGrosse,Calzavara,Glock,& Sgarbossa(2017b)fortopicsstud- ied.

From the invitedsessions organizedin the last five years,we can see a promising trendto include HF in manufacturing mod- ellingfor management andcontrol, and inparticular for thede- signandmanagement ofefficientandsustainableproductionand logisticssystems ofthe future.Thus, it isnot surprising that the majority of papers presented have had a strong focus on mod- elling,inparticularwithregardtothedevelopmentofmathemati- cal/analyticalmodelsconsideringHFandrelatedsolutionmethod- ologies (Fig. 4). Other methodologies, such assimulation models andliteraturereviews,havebeenrare.Wealsonotethatmostpa- pershavenotemployedreal-lifedatatotestthedevelopedmodels (e.g.asanillustrativecase)orusedcasestudydatatogainexplo- rativeinsights.

Regardingthetopics studied,weobserved astrongtrend over the years to focus on Production and Assembly line design and Management (P&AM), asillustrated in Fig. 5.This is followedby IntralogisticsandWarehousemanagement (I&W).Onlyfewworks focused on Inventory Management and Lot-Sizing (IM&LS). Inter- estingly,asFig.5illustrates,papers studyingHF inthecontextof Industry4.0developmentshaveonlyrecentlybeenpresented,with astrongincreaseatMIM2019.Thistrendisexpectedtocontinue infutureconferences, aswe observeanincreasedattentiontoHF inIndustry4.0research.

IntermsofthetypesofHF aspectsthat havebeenconsidered inthepresentedpapers,we observedastrongtendencytoinves- tigatephysicalHFsuchashumanenergyexpenditureandphysical fatigue,whichhavebeenconsidered,forexample,asconstraintsin analyticalmodels.Fewer worksfocused onperceptual, mental,or psychosocialaspects(Fig.6).

Wealsonoticedthat themajorityofworksfocusedontheob- jectiveofimprovingoperationsperformance, followedbyimprov- ingworkerwell-being(e.g.avoidingworkrelatedinjuries).Despite evidencethat HFcan havesignificant impact onoperationsqual- ity(Kolusetal., 2018),onlyfewworksconsideredquality(Fig.7).

16outof54papers,intotal,could becategorizedas“integrated”

in the sense that they simultaneously consider performance and workerwell-being.The remaining 70%ofthepapers onlyconsid- eredonedomainofbenefitsavailablefromgoodHFinsystemde- sign.

Insum,theinvitedsessionshaveshownadiversemix oftop- ics, methodologies, andinterdisciplinary approaches, witha very promisingtrendinfurtherdevelopingthisresearch stream.How- ever,wealsonotethatconsideringHFinmanagerialplanningand

Fig. 4. Methodology and TC 5.2 perspective of the presented papers.

Fig. 5. Topics of the presented papers per year.

Fig. 6. HF aspects considered in the presented papers.

design,insteadofsolelyfocusingoncost,isstillatitsstart.Study- ing the implications of the digital transformation on the future ofindustrial work,also inlight of other societalchallenges, such asdemographicchanges,isstillunder-developed.Westronglybe- lieve that the invited sessions can help to define relevant crite- ria for HF aspects that can be integrated, for example, into an- alyticalmodels in order to changeconventional operationsman-

Fig. 7. Objective of the presented papers.

agement approaches to improve working conditions in existing systems withfinal adjustments ofpostures, equipmentand work assignment. Moreover, we emphasize again that the majority of the works still focus only on performance or only on physical HF, in order to reduce, for example, musculoskeletal disorders, rather than on mental, perceptual or organizational related HF issues.

4. ResearchAgenda

Inthelightofthetheoryandcurrentresearchreviewed,theau- thorshaveattemptedtodeterminedirectionsthatmightbefruit- ful for future research on human-centered decision support sys- tems forproduction and logistics systems of the future. The re- search agenda described in thissection is based on anddirectly derived from theprevious analysis.Inaddition, insights fromre- cent literature reviews in related fields are considered to derive a comprehensive research agenda. The authors have subdivided theseresearch prioritiesintothe threeresearcharenas definedin Fig.2basedonthehuman-centeredperspectiveofTC5.2.

4.1. Human-CenteredIndustrialEngineering

4.1.1. Human-centeredworkplacedesignmethodsforindividualized solutions

As described in the introduction, there is a strong need for the design of individualized, customized solutions in the context of handling increased diversity in employees includ- ing a range of perceptual, cognitive and physical capabilities and needs. This becomes even more important when we con- sider the so-called “ageing-challenge” of theindustrial workforce (Calzavaraetal,2020).Forexample,workingpopulations inmost of the Organization forEconomic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) member countries are ageing and there is currently a strongconsensus regardingtheurgent needtodesign workplaces thatwillsupportthemanagementof“age-friendly” productionand logisticssystems.Duetothisdevelopment,thereisagrowingde- mand ofapplications witharm-based robots,exoskeletons, smart andintelligent workingtools,orimmersivevirtualrealitytechnol- ogy.Allthesetechnologies,ifwellapplied andinvestigated,could have thepotential to preserve theproductivity, quality andwell- being ofthe aging workforce by better utilizing their experience andextraordinaryskillswithoutoverloadingtheemployees.

Theaimshouldbetodesignsmart,age-friendlyworkplaces,in whichadvancedtechnologiesarecollaboratingwithhumanwork- ers and enhancing their capacity, not substituting them. An ex- ample of future assistive workstation for older workers allowing themto producepersonalizedproducts closetothecustomerhas beendevelopedby Linneretal., 2016.Ofcourse,thisapproachis validalsoforthe developmentofindividualizedsolutions fordif- ferentpeople,novicesorexperts,youngerorolder,peoplewithor without disabilities. Opening workplaces to disabled persons fre- quentlyexcludedfromemploymentposesanopportunityforthese approaches to contribute also to broader societal goals of labor marketinclusivity.Thiscanbeachievedthroughmulti-disciplinary research related to industrial engineering, social science and er- gonomics,operationsresearch andmanagement science,anddig- ital technologies and data science. Consequently, a new multi- disciplinary culture should be created supporting the design and useof technologysupportingdiversity inthepeople ableto con- tribute to organizational goals. Thus, there is also a strong need forinternational standardsableto guidepractitioners, both engi- neersandmanagers,intheimplementationofhuman-centeredap- proachesinproductionandlogisticssystemsofthefuture.

4.1.2Human-centeredworkplacedesigninthepresenceofassistive andcollaborativetechnologies

According to one of the principlesof Industry 4.0, there is a need to supporthumans by conductinga rangeoftasks that are unpleasant, tooexhausting,orunsafethanks totheintegrationof assistive andcollaborativetechnologiesintonewhuman-centered workplaces. Romero et al. (2015) define the Operator 4.0 as the

“operator of the future”, a smart and skilled operator who per- formswork“aided” bymachinesifandasneeded.Theproduction

andlogisticssystemsshouldbemodular,integratingoperatorsand technologiesby meansofhumancyber-physicalsystems,e.g. dig- italtwins. Thisshould alsohave an integratedmonitored system where data about system performance, both fromoperators and machines, are collected and analyzed in real-time thanks to ad- vancedpredictiveanalyticstools.Advancedtechnologiesforcreat- ingdigitaltwinsofhuman-centeredworkplaces,suchasimmersive reality and motion capturesystems, are very helpful in order to optimizeandvalidatethe workplaces withparticular attentionto thehumandemandsandtheir relationswithsystemperformance (Battinietal.,2018;Peronetal.,2020).However,theintroduction ofassistiveandcollaborativetechnologiesinproductionandlogis- ticssystemscontinuestobearbitrary.Accurateandcomprehensive decisionsupportsystemshavetobedevelopedtostudythecondi- tions underwhichtheimplementation ofassistiveandcollabora- tivetechnologiesiseconomicallybeneficial.

4.1.3. Challengesinhuman-centeredworkingspacedesign

As described in the introduction, it is necessary to seek a paradigmaticchangetore-thinkthetraditionalIndustrialEngineer- ing approaches.Engineersneed to take responsibility forthehu- manconsequences of their designs. Researchers need to provide better knowledge aboutthe linksbetween human demands and system performance. High perceptual demands can lead to mis- takes,errorsandlowquality.Highcognitivedemandscouldtrigger highstress,errors,illhealthandleadconsequentlytolowquality.

High physical demands have directconsequences forfatigue and injuries and so for quality. Detailed design level knowledge and methodsareneededifengineeringteamsaretoaccountforthese aspectsappropriatelyintheirdesignwork.

Moreover, engineers have to pay more attention to the sec- ondaryeffects ofautomationandassistive/collaborative technolo- gies.There is a need to understand the correctbalance between automatingmanualactivitiesandthosetasksremainingforthehu- manworker. There might be the risk of overloading the worker withmonotonousactivitiesleadingtonegativeeffectswithregard tohis/her well-being andso, consequently, tothe system perfor- mance(Neumannetal.,2002). Furthermore,astechnological sys- temsbecomemorecomplex,engineerswillneedtoattendtothe needsofotheruserssuchasmaintenanceandinstallationperson- nel.IfHFispoorforthesetasks,thenerrorsanddown-timewill increaseandthelifecyclecostsofthesystemwillsoar,compromis- ingtheinvestmentinnewtechnology.

Other important aspects are the perceptual and physical de- mandsofnewtechnologiesontheworkforce.Manyquestionshere remainunanswered,such as“whichisthe effectoffont sizeand glareusingdevicesfordigitalworkerinstruction(e.g.tablets,aug- mented reality, laser and light assistance tools)?”; “which is the demandofwearingasmartglassdeviceof1kgfor8hours?”;“are exoskeletonsreally helpfulfor theworkers ordo they justmove theeffortstootherpartsofthebody,typicallylowerparts?”.Thus, itis necessarytohave toolsandmethodsthat can guidetheen- gineers in quantifying these demands when new workplaces are designed.Withoutmethodsandknowledge,designersmaysimply, andunwittingly,createnewproblemsforemployeesastheytryto solveoldproblems.

4.2.Human-CenteredModelling

4.2.1. Age-friendlymodellingforproductionandlogisticssystems Themajorityofresearchstudiesreviewedherehaveignoredthe ageoftheworkforce,despiteitsstrategicimportance.Newanalyt- icalmodelsshouldconsiderbothcognitiveandphysicalloadcon- straints forageing workersinorder to improvethe work assign- mentinproductionandlogisticssystems,such asthe sequencing of jobs in manual production/assembly workstation or workload

managementin manual materials handlingsystems.Such models wouldsupporttheintroductionofnew,age-orientedmanagement approachesin production andlogistics systems. New models are alsorequired tointegrate ageing,for example,inlearning curves estimation,rest-allowance assessment,orin termsofthetraining ofnovices,jobenlargementandenrichment,or“age-oriented” job rotation(Calzavaraetal.,2020).Fincoetal.(2019)thechallengefor managershereis to capitalizefully onthe knowledge andexpe- rienceofolderemployees,whilerespectingthegradualdeclinein workcapacitiesthatallhumansexperiencewithage.

4.2.2. Modellingforproductionandlogisticssystemsinpresenceof collaborative/assistivetechnologies

New models for operational planning of cooperative human- roboticproductionandinsmartanddigitalworkingenvironments shouldbedeveloped.Inthiscontext,itwouldbeimportanttocon- siderandpredicthumaneffectsofadoptinganewtool/instrument andsubsequently, the impact of HF on system performance and not only on investment cost. This also leads to the question of what the secondary costs of new technologiesacross the lifecy- cle of the systemare. New approaches will be needed to model thesesecondarycosts,resulting,forexample,frominjuries,worker turnover,fatigue-relatederrors, andabsenteeism,alsotakinginto considerationtheacceptabilityofthesetechnologiesbythework- ers.

4.2.3. Challengesinhuman-centeredmodellinginproductionand logisticssystems

Inthiscontext,futuremodellingeffortsneedtoaddresschoices surroundingmodelgranularityandtemporalresolution.Theeffects onhumans may rangefrommilliseconds, forexample looking at electrophysiological fatigue responses in muscle contraction pat- terns, to months, when considering emotional fatigue andburn- out responses toover-work. Granularity inthe work process also posesa modellingissue: “how fine a resolution in taskscope is appropriate for the modelling activity?” This issue is similar to thechoiceofMTMlevel(aspredeterminedmotiontimeanalysis) wherelevel 1 uses a very fine gradationof each sub-movement requiredtocompleteatask,soafinegranularitylevelthatcomes withincreasedtime-coststo implement.Similarly, identifyingthe critical granularity level in human modelling poses a challenge.

“Dowe needtomodelforcesateachhumanjoint,foreachmus- cleor for each motor unit?”; “what about fatigue effects in the same anatomicalstructures?”; “what about perceptual andemo- tional demands?”; “how should these be included appropriately ina givenmodel?” We anticipate aprocess of analysisbeing re- quiredto identifyandjustifywhatHFaspects aretobe included, andwhichexcluded, fromagiven modellingproject.Professional modelbuildersworkinginpracticewillneedtoolsandmethodsto supportthedecision-makingaroundtheseissues.

4.3.Human-CenteredManagement

4.3.1. Managementapproachesinproductionandlogisticssystems towardsanageingworkforcecommunity

The previouslynoteddemographicshiftsimplythatspecialat- tentionneeds tobe dedicated tothe learningcapacities, physical andcognitivecapacitiesforemployeesover55yearsofage,espe- ciallywhenthey areinvolvedin productionandlogisticssystems withextensivematerials handlingactivities.Newdecisionsupport systemsfor human resource and operationsmanagers should be developedinordertosupportthedecision-makingandhelpman- agersidentifythebestsolutions forenhancingtheirlargecapabil- ities while assuring a safeand motivating workingenvironment.

Inthiscontext,fromamanagementpoint ofview,itwillbecome

strategicalsotopredicttheinvestmentcostonassistivetechnolo- gies(andrelatedtrainingactivities)andtheircapabilitiestoreally support the workers and be accepted by them in the long run.

Without models that can predict secondary, especially negative, humaneffectsofsystemdesign,costperformancemodelswillun- realisticallyoverpredictthebenefitsofadoptinganewtechnology resultinginwhathasbeendubbed“phantomprofits” (Roseetal., 2013).“Phantomprofits” refers totheanticipatedprofitsofanin- vestment that fail to appear asthey are eroded by HF problems and resulting underperformance of the system. Characteristically, the“phantom” natureoftheprofitsisnotanticipatedbymanage- mentortheircostmodelsastheydonotaccountforHFeffects.

4.3.2. ManagementprocedureswithHFparadigmsinproductionand logisticssystemsofthefuture

HF has both implications on social sustainability and perfor- manceof the productionandlogistics systems.However, HFand management research streams and applications tend to be still separated in practice. Indeed, Dul and Neumann (2009) argued that, if ergonomics is only seen from the social andethical per- spectivewithout connectingtofinancial andprofitissues,then it will beisolated frommanagement research anddecision-making.

The consideration of HF asa means to achieve both social goals aswell aseconomicgoalssimultaneouslyisapromisingapproach to push towards the creation of a more integrated management approach. Thesenew procedures should also foster consideration of newwork environments in which humans are employed. The introductionof advancedtechnologiescan drive theimplementa- tionofnewmanagementstrategies,moredecentralized,moreau- tonomous,moreintelligent,basedondatasciencetechniques,e.g.

advancedpredictiveanalyticsandsimulationandprescriptiveopti- mization.Here,alsoknowledgemanagement strategiesneedtobe changedandadaptedaccordinglytofostereffectiveuptakeanduse ofthesetechnologiesbyemployees.

Finally,themanagementstrategywillneedtoconsideranypos- sible factorthat could affect employee performance, from health well-beingto career development.In thisperspective,the quality ofworkinglifewillalsoplayacentralroleintheevaluationofthe companies’ efforts, andthus there will be a need to find a new set of measures/indexes in order to better evaluate the human- centeredsolutions andpractices thecompanies aredevelopingat differentlevels.

4.4. Academicandmanagerialinsights

Grounding on the analysis of the state-of-knowledge, Table 1 systematically summarizesthe main research challenges, possible methods to helpreaders insolving problems anddefining future researchtopics,andtheindustrialandsocietalchallengesemerging in thecurrent transformationof manual work in productionand logisticssystems.

Based on our visionof the research field of integratingHF in thedesignandmanagementofoperationsprocesses,weobserved increasing publication numbers of works that consider HF over time. However,we alsonote thatmostresearch focused predom- inantlyon physical HF,such as reducing human energyexpendi- tureorfatigue.Verylittleattentionhasbeenpaidto theinterac- tionsbetweenengineeringchoicesandpsychosocialfactorssuchas jobsatisfactionandmotivation,whichcaninfluencelong-runsys- temperformance. Furthermore,works that consider multipleob- jectives andthatemphasize employee well-beingandoperational performanceneedtobeaddressedsimultaneouslyarestillrare.Re- searchersinthisareashould,asamatterofroutine,includeatten- tion to both human performance and its precursor, human well- being-relatedindicatorssuchasfatigue,workload,discomfortand injuryrisk.Thisisparticularlyimportantinthelongtermandfor

Table. 1

Overview of future research streams for each research arena identified in Fig. 2

Research Arenas Research Challenges Methodological Challenges Industrial and Societal

Challenges Human-Centered

Industrial Engineering

Individualized solutions Considering employee diversity. Accounting for intra-individual changes.

Multi-disciplinary design procedures not based anymore on the “average operator”.

Methods to compare demands to individual capabilities.

Multi-disciplinary culture and new international standards.

Managing diversity in inclusive work systems.

Assistive and collaborative

technologies in workplaces Developing cost-efficient human cyber-physical systems.

Understanding HF demands of new technologies.

Integrated monitored system for creating digital twins of human-centered workplaces.

Assessment methods quantifying HF demands of the use of new technologies.

Low-cost sensors and data collection.

Impact of workers’ privacy issues.

Setting acceptable performance and risk levels for employees.

Human-Centered Modelling

Age-friendly modelling Integrating ageing factors in the modelling of human capability.

Analytical/simulation models to include cognitive and physical aspects.

Implementation of models with different granularity and temporal resolution.

Modelling of assistive and collaborative technologies

Integrating assistive and collaborative technologies in modelling. Anticipating and minimising side effects.

Analytical/simulation models for human-technology interaction.

Assessment of total costs including also secondary costs.

Understanding long-term physical and psychological effects.

Human-Centered Management

Management approaches for the ageing workforce community

Interactions between different management decision-making processes.

Decision support systems for human resource and operations managers. Methods to quantify the benefits of inclusive OM.

Development of inclusive workplaces considering also phantom profits. Spanning the responsibility gap between OM and HR.

Management approaches with HF paradigms in production and logistics systems of the future.

Joint consideration of social and economic impacts of new technologies at different decentralized decision levels.

Decision support systems for more decentralized, more autonomous, and more intelligent management strategies.

Implementation of new data-driven management approaches for improving overall well-being. Managing the psychosocial dimensions of work appropriately.

more vulnerableemployees.In addition,mostpapersdid notuse real data or case studies to support the results of their models.

More empiricalwork isrequiredifvalidpredictive modelsare to be built.For instance, while we see a strong need for advanced analyticalmodels,quantitativeapproaches,andsimulationstudies, we also see the need for qualitative approaches and case stud- ies that give insights into behavioral issues and the interactions ofhumans andnewtechnologiesin productionandlogisticssys- tems(Grosseetal.,2016).Thisresearch shouldfocuson physical, cognitiveandpsychosocialhumanfactorsinproductionandlogis- ticssystems,andintegratequalityissues,suchashumanerrors,in the analysis.Connected withthechancesandchallengesofusing assistiveandcollaborativetechnologiesinmanualindustrialwork, weseeaclearneedforresearchontechnologyadoption,reliability andmaintainabilityinthesesystems,allofwhichhaveHFimplica- tions.Itremainsan underlyingquestionastotheextenttowhich applyingemergingtechnologies,such asthoseproposed inIndus- try 4.0, will outperform conventional engineered systems when thesearedevelopedusinghuman-centereddesignapproachesthat engageendusersintheformationandimplementationofthetech- nology,ascomparedtothestatusquoapproachinwhichtechnol- ogyis developedinisolationandimplementedwithoutregard to theneedsoftheextendedsetofsystemusers.

Thisworkcanalsoprovideinsightsforpractitioners,inparticu- larindustrialengineersandoperationsmanagers, whoneedtobe sensitizedfortheimpactsofthetechnicaldesignoftheproduction andlogisticssystems (includingtheuse ofIndustry4.0technolo- gies) ontheir employees andcontract workers. Inaddition, engi- neersandmanagersmaytakenoticeofpsychosocialaspectsinflu- encedby thedesignoftechnicallyassistedwork,such asmotiva- tion,boredom,ortechnologyadoptionthat affectemployees’, and henceoperational,performanceandquality.Tofurtherimprovethe performanceofproductionandlogisticssystemsinlightofdemo-

graphic changes, engineers and managersshould consider HF, in particulartheindividual requirementsandabilitiesofworkers, in designingorredesigningmanualworkingprocesses.

5. Conclusion

Thispaper discussed the vision ofthe IFAC TC5.2 WG7 “Hu- manfactors andergonomics in industrialand logisticsystem design andmanagement” aboutthefuturedevelopmentofresearchonHF inproduction andlogistics systems. Based on theaim of TC5.2, thispaperfirst outlined the importance ofHF in productionand logisticssystemsdesignandmanagement,integratingHFissuesin mathematicalplanningmodelsforthesesystems,asitisstillcom- monpracticeinengineeringdesigntoneglectHFtoagreatextent.

Thus,we call forthedevelopmentof ahuman-centered perspec- tiveofTC5.2, whichtakesintoaccount thenecessarychanges in theperspectivesregarding systemdesignvia human-centered in- dustrial engineering, the modellingof the analyzedsystem using human-centeredmodellingandthemanagement ofthe modelled system with human-centered management approaches and per- spectives.Thishuman-centeredperspectiveonthedevelopmentof decisionsupportsystemscanhelptoovercomecurrentchallenges companies face, such as digital transformation and demographic change,andcansetthestageforthedevelopmentoffuturework toachievelong-termsustainableoperationsprocesses.

Tohighlightthedevelopmentoftheresearch streamon HFin production and logistics system design and management within theIFACcommunity,ananalysisofpreviousliteraturereviewsand themostrecentpaperspresentedininvitedsessionsorganizedby WG7 at the last five IFAC conferences was presented. Then we derived a research agenda highlighting the most promising top- ics that should be considered in future research. This agenda is supposedtostimulatefurtherresearchpromotinghuman-centered

decisionsupport systems.Thesenewhuman-centered approaches can facilitate the design of productionand logistics systems and give guidance for considering HF in managerial decision-making.

Thisrequiresresearchersandorganizationstoovercometheorga- nizationaldivide betweena human resource view ofHF andthe traditionalapproachtooperationsmanagement thatisstillpreva- lentinmanycompanies. Thisvision articleemphasizes that con- sideringHFindesignandmanagementofproductionandlogistics systemsisacrucialaspectforbusinesssuccess.HFwillbeparticu- larlyimportantinsuccessfullymanagingtheongoing,andrevolu- tionarydigitaltransformationofindustrialwork.Weareconfident thattheactionstakenwithinIFACTC5.2(suchasinvitedsessions) canmakeamajorcontributiontothisdevelopmentandencourage otherresearcherstocontributetothisimportantarea,forinstance infutureIFACconferences.

DeclarationofCompetingInterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenoknowncompetingfinan- cialinterestsorpersonalrelationshipsthatcouldhaveappearedto influencetheworkreportedinthispaper

Acknowledgment

This research hasreceived fundingfromtheEuropean Union’s Horizon2020researchandinnovationprogrammeundertheMarie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 873077 (MAIA-H2020- MSCA-RISE 2019).One author (WPN) wassupported by the Nat- uralSciencesandEngineeringResearchCouncil(NSERC)ofCanada DiscoveryGrant(RGPIN#341664).

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