Mobility of naturally occurring radionuclides and stable elements in alum shale : a case study of Gran, Highway 4, Norway

Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis 2019:72

Frøydis Meen Wærsted

Mobility of naturally occurring radionuclides and stable

elements in alum shale:

A case study of Gran, Highway 4, Norway

Mobiliteten til naturlig forekommende radionuklider og stabile grunnstoffer i alunskifer:

En kasusstudie av Gran, riksvei 4, Norge

Norwegian University of Life Sciences Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management

Mobility of naturally occurring radionuclides and stable elements in alum shale:

A case study of Gran, Highway 4, Norway

Mobiliteten til naturlig forekommende radionuklider og stabile grunnstoffer i alunskifer:

En kasusstudie av Gran, riksvei 4, Norge

Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis Frøydis Meen Wærsted

Norwegian University of Life Sciences

Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management

Ås (2019)

Thesis number 2019:72 ISSN 1894-6402 ISBN 978-82-575-1632-1

‹‹‹

PhD supervisors

”‘ˆ‡••‘”‹†‹•‹’’‡”—†

ƒ…—Ž–›‘ˆ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‹‡…‡•ƒ†ƒ–—”ƒŽ‡•‘—”…‡ƒƒ‰‡‡–

‘”™‡‰‹ƒ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‹ˆ‡…‹‡…‡•

ǤǤ‘šͷͲͲ͵ǡͳͶ͵ʹ%•ǡ‘”™ƒ›

Ǧƒ‹ŽǣŽ‹†‹•Ǥ•‹’’‡”—†̷„—Ǥ‘

”‘ˆ‡••‘””‹–ƒŽ„—

ƒ…—Ž–›‘ˆ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‹‡…‡•ƒ†ƒ–—”ƒŽ‡•‘—”…‡ƒƒ‰‡‡–

‘”™‡‰‹ƒ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‹ˆ‡…‹‡…‡•

ǤǤ‘šͷͲͲ͵ǡͳͶ͵ʹ%•ǡ‘”™ƒ›

Ǧƒ‹Žǣ„”‹–Ǥ•ƒŽ„—̷„—Ǥ‘

”Ǥ—•–‹”‘™

‘”™‡‰‹ƒƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘ƒ†—…Ž‡ƒ”ƒˆ‡–›—–Š‘”‹–›

”‹‹§”‹‰•’ƒ”ͳ͵ǡͳ͵͸ͳ]•–‡”¤•ǡ‘”™ƒ›

Ǧƒ‹ŽǣŒ—•–‹Ǥ„”‘™̷†•ƒǤ‘

—ƒƒ”Ž‘•‘”ƒƒÓƒ†ƒ•

‡–”‘†‡˜‡•–‹‰ƒ…‹‘‡•‡”‰±–‹…ƒ•ǡ‡†‹‘ƒ„‹‡–ƒŽ‡•›‡…‘Ž×‰‹…ƒ•

ȋȌ˜‡‹†ƒ‘’Ž—–‡•‡ǡͶͲǡʹͺͲͶͲƒ†”‹†ǡ’ƒ‹

Ǧƒ‹ŽǣŒ…Ǥ‘”ƒ̷…‹‡ƒ–Ǥ‡•

Evaluation Committee

”Ǥ‡”‘‘•

‡–‡”ˆ‘”—…Ž‡ƒ”‡…Š‘Ž‘‰‹‡•ǡ‡…Š‹…ƒŽ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‡ƒ”ǡ ”‡†‡”‹•„‘”‰˜‡Œ͵ͻͻǡǦͶͲͲͲ‘•‹Ž†‡ǡ‡ƒ”

Ǧƒ‹Žǣ”‘‘•̷†–—Ǥ†

”Ǥƒ–ŠƒŽ‹‡’‡•

‹‘•’Š‡”‡’ƒ…––—†‹‡•‹–Š‡‹•–‹–—–‡˜‹”‘‡–‡ƒŽ–Šƒ†ƒˆ‡–›ȋȌƒ–

–Š‡‡Ž‰‹ƒ—…Ž‡ƒ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š•–‹–—–‡ȋȈȌ

‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡–”‡‘Žǡ‘‡”‡–ƒ‰ʹͲͲǡʹͶͲͲ‘Žǡ‡Ž‰‹—

Ǧƒ‹Žǣƒ–ŠƒŽ‹‡Ǥ‹’‡•̷•……‡Ǥ„‡

••‘…‹ƒ–‡’”‘ˆ‡••‘”‘ƒ‡”‹•‡

ƒ…—Ž–›‘ˆ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‹‡…‡•ƒ†ƒ–—”ƒŽ‡•‘—”…‡ƒƒ‰‡‡–

‘”™‡‰‹ƒ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ‹ˆ‡…‹‡…‡•

ǤǤ‘šͷͲͲ͵ǡͳͶ͵ʹ%•ǡ‘”™ƒ›

Ǧƒ‹Žǣ‘ƒǤŠ‡”‹•‡̷„—Ǥ‘

‹˜

˜

Acknowledgements

Š‹•ŠŠƒ•„‡‡ˆ—†‡†„›–Š‡‡’ƒ”–‡–‘ˆ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‹‡…‡•ƒ–ǡ„›–Š‡

‘”™‡‰‹ƒ —„Ž‹… ‘ƒ† †‹‹•–”ƒ–‹‘ ȋȌ –Š”‘—‰Š –Š‡ ȋ‘”†‹… ‘ƒ†

ƒ–‡”Ȍ ’”‘‰”ƒ‡ ƒ† „› –Š‡ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ ‡•‡ƒ”…Š ‘—…‹Ž –Š”‘—‰Š ‹–• ‡–”‡ ‘ˆ

š…‡ŽŽ‡…‡ȋ‘Ȍˆ—†‹‰•…Š‡‡ȋ”‘Œ‡…–ʹʹ͵ʹ͸ͺȀ ͷͲȌǤ

‹”•–ǡ™‘—Ž†Ž‹‡–‘–Šƒ›•—’‡”˜‹•‘”•ǡ‹†‹•‹’’‡”—†ǡ”‹–ƒŽ„—ǡ—ƒƒ”Ž‘•‘”ƒ

ƒÓƒ†ƒ•ƒ†—•–‹”‘™Ǥ‘›ƒ‹•—’‡”˜‹•‘”‹†‹•ǡ–Šƒ›‘—ˆ‘”‰‹˜‹‰‡–Š‡

‘’’‘”–—‹–›–‘†‘–Š‹•Šǡˆ‘”ƒŽŽ–Š‡ˆ”‡‡†‘ǯ˜‡Šƒ†‹…Š‘‘•‹‰›‘™™ƒ›•ǡƒ†ˆ‘”

›‘—”•—’’‘”–ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡”‘ƒ†Ǥ”‹–ǡ–Šƒ›‘—ˆ‘”›‘—”…”‹–‹…ƒŽƒ†˜‡”›—•‡ˆ—Žˆ‡‡†„ƒ…ǡ

‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›‹–Š‡Žƒ•–’Šƒ•‡‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡•‹•™”‹–‹‰Ǥ—ƒƒ”Ž‘•ǡ–Šƒ›‘—ˆ‘”Š‡Ž’‹‰‡•‡‡

–Š‹‰•ˆ”‘ƒ™‹†‡”’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ƒ†Š‡Ž’‹‰‡†‡Ž‹‹–›™‘”Ǥ—•–‹ǡ‹–‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•‹…‡

–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒƒ–‹˜‡•’‡ƒ‡”–‘ƒ’’”‘˜‡–Š‡Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǩ

ǯ˜‡Šƒ†–Š‡’Ž‡ƒ•—”‡‘ˆ„‡‹‰…‘Ǧ•—’‡”˜‹•‘”ˆ‘”ƒ•–‡”•–—†‡–•Š”‹•–‹ƒ…ŠÚ’‡ƒ†

‡–‡” ƒ”‹—‹ ƒ‹ƒ ‹ –Š‡•‡ ›‡ƒ”•ǡ ƒ† ƒŽ•‘„‡‹‰ ‹˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹ –Š‡ƒ•–‡” ’”‘Œ‡…–• ‘ˆ

ƒ”–‹‡‹‰‡”—†‡Ž‰¤”†ƒ†ƒ”‡Œ—Ž•–ƒ†ǤŠƒ›‘—ˆ‘”Ž‡––‹‰‡Š‡Ž’ƒ†Ž‡ƒ”Ǥ

™‘—Ž†ƒŽ•‘Ž‹‡–‘–Šƒ‡˜‡”›‘‡ǡƒ–ƒ†‡Ž•‡™Š‡”‡ǡ™Š‘Šƒ•–ƒ‡–Š‡–‹‡–‘

ƒ•™‡”›“—‡•–‹‘•ƒ†’”‘˜‹†‡Š‡Ž’Ǥ

Š‹•Œ‘—”‡›™‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡„‡‡—…ŠŽ‡••’Ž‡ƒ•ƒ–™‹–Š‘—–ƒŽŽ–Š‡ƒƒœ‹‰’‡‘’Ž‡‹–Š‡

Žƒ„Ǥ ‘”‰‘‘†…‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ††‹•…—••‹‘•ǡ–Šƒ•–‘ƒ”Ž†”‡ƒ•ǡ•–‡Žƒƒ†ƒ•Ǧ

Š”‹•–‹ƒǤ‘‡˜‡”›‘‡‡Ž•‡ǡ–Šƒ•ˆ‘”‡Œ‘›ƒ„Ž‡Ž—…Š†‹•…—••‹‘•ǡˆ‘”ƒ•™‡”‹‰›

“—‡•–‹‘• ƒ† ƒ‹‰ ƒ ‹…‡ ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ǣ ƒ”‹–ǡ ‹”‹ƒǡ Šƒ‡ǡ ƒǡ ƒ„Ž‘ǡ ‡‡ǡ ‡–ǡ

‘Žˆ”‹†ǡ‹…‡ǡ‹‰‡ǡ‡‡ǡ‡”‡–Š‡ǡ‹Žǡ‹ƒǡ—•ƒ‡ǡƒ–‘ƒ†‡˜‡”›‘‡‡Ž•‡Ǥ”‹…ƒǡ

‡˜‰‡‹›ƒǡ‹•ƒƒ†•–‡Žƒǣ™‘—Ž†‘–Šƒ˜‡•—”˜‹˜‡†™‹–Š‘—––Š‡…‘ˆˆ‡‡„”‡ƒ•Ǩ

‹‰–Šƒ•–‘›ˆƒ‹Ž›ǡˆ‘”ƒŽ™ƒ›•„‡‹‰—†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ǡŽ‘˜‹‰ƒ†•—’’‘”–‹‰Ǥ†–‘

ƒŽŽ›ˆ”‹‡†•‘—––Š‡”‡–Šƒ–ǯ˜‡„ƒ”‡Ž›•‡‡–Š‡Žƒ•–›‡ƒ”•Ȃ’Žƒ–‘Šƒ˜‡‘”‡•’ƒ”‡

–‹‡‘™Ǩ

‘ƒ–”‹…ǡǯ•‘‰”ƒ–‡ˆ—Žˆ‘”ƒŽŽ›‘—”Š‡Ž’ƒ†ˆ‡‡†„ƒ…‡˜‡”›–‹‡™ƒ••–—…ǡˆ‘”›‘—”

•—’’‘”–ƒ†Ž‘˜‡ƒ†ˆ‘”ƒŽ™ƒ›•„‡Ž‹‡˜‹‰‹‡

”Þ›†‹•‡‡§”•–‡†ǡ%•ǡ—Ž›ʹͲͳͻ

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Contents

…‘™Ž‡†‰‡‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ˜

—ƒ”›ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ‹š

ƒ‡†”ƒ‰ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤš‹

‹•–‘ˆ’ƒ’‡”•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤš˜

–Š‡”™‘”ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤš˜‹

„„”‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤš˜‹‹

ͳ –”‘†—…–‹‘ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͳ ͳǤͳ ‡•‡ƒ”…Šƒ‹•ƒ†Š›’‘–Š‡•‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵

ʹ ƒ…‰”‘—†ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͷ ʹǤͳ Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͷ ʹǤͳǤͳ ‹‡”ƒŽ‘‰›ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸

ʹǤͳǤʹ ›”‹–‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ƒ†ƒ…‹†‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸

ʹǤͳǤ͵ –ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͻ ʹǤͳǤͶ ƒ–—”ƒŽŽ›‘……—””‹‰”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽȋȌǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͳͲ ʹǤͳǤͷ –Š‡”…‘…‡”•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͳͷ ʹǤʹ ’‡…‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ„‹‘ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„‹Ž‹–›ƒ†—Ž–‹’Ž‡•–”‡••‘”•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͳ͸

ʹǤ͵ ƒ•‡•–—†›ǣ”ƒǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͳ͹

͵ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•ƒ†‡–Š‘†•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͳ

͵Ǥͳ ‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰ƒ‡–Š‘†ˆ‘”–Š‡†‡–‡”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͳ

͵ǤͳǤͳ ƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ‘”‡…‘’Ž‡šƒ–”‹…‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͳ

͵Ǥʹ ‹–‡†‡•…”‹’–‹‘ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹ͵

͵Ǥ͵ ƒ’Ž‹‰ƒ†•ƒ’Ž‡–”‡ƒ–‡–ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͶ

͵ǤͶ Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹œƒ–‹‘ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹ͸

͵Ǥͷ ‡ƒ…Š‹‰‡š’‡”‹‡–•ǣ‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒŽ†‡•‹‰ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹ͹

͵ǤͷǤͳ ƒ’‡”ǣ‘–‹—‘—•Ž›‹‡”•‡†ǡƒ†–”‡ƒ–‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͻ

͵ǤͷǤʹ ƒ’‡”ǣ›…Ž‹…‡š…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ǡƒ†–”‡ƒ–‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤʹͻ

͵Ǥ͸ ‡ƒ…Šƒ–‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵Ͳ

͵Ǥ͹ ǦƒƒŽ›•‹•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵ͳ

͵Ǥͺ ƒ•Ǧ’Šƒ•‡‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵ͳ

͵Ǥͻ –ƒ–‹•–‹…•ƒ††ƒ–ƒ–”‡ƒ–‡–ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵ͳ Ͷ ‡•—Ž–•ƒ††‹•…—••‹‘ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵͵

˜‹‹‹

ͶǤͳ ‹‰Š–Š”‘—‰Š’—–ǡ†‹”‡…–†‡–‡”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹™ƒ–‡”ƒ††‹‰‡•–‡†‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ

•ƒ’Ž‡•Ȃƒ’‡”ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵͵

ͶǤʹ ‘„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•‹ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡Ȃƒ’‡”ƬǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵ͷ ͶǤʹǤͳ Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹œƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͵ͷ ͶǤʹǤʹ ‡ƒ…Š‹‰ƒ•ƒˆ—…–‹‘‘ˆ–‹‡ǣŠ›•‹…‘Ǧ…Š‡‹…ƒŽ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͶͷ ͶǤʹǤ͵ ‡ƒ…Š‹‰ƒ•ƒˆ—…–‹‘‘ˆ–‹‡ǣƒ†–”ƒ…‡‡Ž‡‡–•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͷ͵

ͶǤʹǤͶ ‘’ƒ”‹•‘™‹–Š–Š‡†‹•’‘•ƒŽ•‹–‡ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸Ͷ ͶǤ͵ ’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•ˆ‘”•–‘”ƒ‰‡‘ˆƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰”‘…‹™ƒ–‡”ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸͹

ͶǤ͵Ǥͳ ‘„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•ˆ”‘ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸͹

ͶǤ͵Ǥʹ ‹‘ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„‹Ž‹–›ƒ†‡ˆˆ‡…–•‘ˆƒ†–‘š‹…‡Ž‡‡–•‹ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͸͹

ͶǤ͵Ǥ͵ –‘”ƒ‰‡‘ˆƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒ…‹†’”‘†—…‹‰”‘…Ȃ”‡ˆŽ‡…–‹‘•ƒ„‘—––Š‡

•–‘”ƒ‰‡•‹–‡ƒ–”ƒǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͹ͳ ͷ …‡”–ƒ‹–‹‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͹͹

͸ ‘…Ž—•‹‘•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͹ͻ

͸Ǥͳ ˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆŠ›’‘–Š‡•‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤ͹ͻ

͸Ǥʹ —”–Š‡”™‘”ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͺͳ

͹ ‡ˆ‡”‡…‡•ǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͺʹ

””ƒ–ƒǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤǤͺͻ

‹š

Summary

Ž— •ŠƒŽ‡ ‹• ƒ ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ”‘… –Šƒ– …ƒ „‡ ‡…‘—–‡”‡† ‹ ‹‹‰ ƒ†

…‘•–”—…–‹‘ ™‘” ‹ ‘”–Š‡” —”‘’‡Ǥ —…Š •ŠƒŽ‡• …ƒ Šƒ˜‡ Š‹‰Š Ž‡˜‡Ž• ‘ˆ ƒ–—”ƒŽŽ›

‘……—””‹‰”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽȋȌƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡–”ƒ…‡‡Ž‡‡–•ȋDzŠ‡ƒ˜›‡–ƒŽ•dzȌǤ…‹†

”‘… †”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡ ȋȌ ™‹–Š Š‹‰Š Ž‡˜‡Ž• ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• …ƒ †‡˜‡Ž‘’ —†‡” –Š‡ ”‹‰Š–

…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ

–”ƒǡƒ†‡Žƒ†ǡ‘”™ƒ›ǡƒ‡™–—‡Ž™ƒ•…‘•–”—…–‡†ǡƒ†Žƒ”‰‡ƒ‘—–•‘ˆƒŽ—

•ŠƒŽ‡…‘–ƒ‹‹‰™‡”‡‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ••‡•™‡”‡—•‡†–‘ˆ‹ŽŽƒ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†„‘‰

—†‡”–Š‡’Žƒ‡†”‘ƒ†Ǥ–Š‡’”‡•‡–™‘”ǡŽ‡ƒ…Š‹‰‡š’‡”‹‡–•™‹–ŠƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ˆ”‘

”ƒ ™‡”‡ ’‡”ˆ‘”‡† –‘ ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ –Š‡ ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ ‘„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ ƒ† •–ƒ„Ž‡ –”ƒ…‡

‡Ž‡‡–•—†‡”†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•–‘”ƒ‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥˆ•’‡…‹ƒŽ‹–‡”‡•–™ƒ•–Š‡ƒ••‡••‡–‘ˆ

‘„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆƒ––Š‡•‹–‡ǡ‘ˆ™Š‹…Š^ʹ͵ͺƒ††ƒ—‰Š–‡”•Ž‹‡^ʹʹ͸ƒƒ”‡‘•–‹’‘”–ƒ–Ǥ

‘”†‡”–‘‘„–ƒ‹†‡–ƒ‹Ž‡†”‡•—Ž–•‘–Š‡„‡Šƒ˜‹‘—”‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‡š’‡”‹‡–•ǡ

ƒ‡–Š‘†ˆ‘”†‹”‡…–†‡–‡”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹™ƒ–‡”ƒ††‹‰‡•–‡†‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ™ƒ•

†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† —–‹Ž‹œ‹‰ –”‹’Ž‡ “—ƒ†”—’‘Ž‡ ‹†—…–‹˜‡Ž› …‘—’Ž‡† ’Žƒ•ƒ ƒ•• •’‡…–”‘‡–”›

ȋǦȌǤ Š‡ ‡–Š‘† —–‹Ž‹œ‡• ʹ ƒ• ƒ ”‡ƒ…–‹‘ ‰ƒ• –‘ ‡•—”‡ ‹–‡”ˆ‡”‡…‡Ǧˆ”‡‡

‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•ǤŠ‡†‡–‡…–‹‘Ž‹‹–ˆ‘”™ƒ–‡”•ƒ’Ž‡•™ƒ•ͲǤͶʹ’‰^Ǧͳʹʹ͸ƒȋͳͷ“^ǦͳȌǡ

™Š‹…Š ‹• …‘’Ž‹ƒ– ™‹–Š –Š‡ •’‡…‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ˆ‘” ‡–Š‘†• —•‡† ˆ‘” ”‘—–‹‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ‘ˆ

†”‹‹‰™ƒ–‡”“—ƒŽ‹–›ƒ……‘”†‹‰–‘—”‘’‡ƒƒ†ǤǤ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡‡–Š‘†™ƒ•ƒŽ•‘

ƒ’’Ž‹‡† –‘ ™ƒ–‡” •ƒ’Ž‡• ™‹–Š Š‹‰Š –‘–ƒŽ †‹••‘Ž˜‡† •‘Ž‹†• ȋȌ ƒˆ–‡” †‹Ž—–‹‘ǡ ƒ† –‘

†‹‰‡•–‡†‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ•ƒ’Ž‡•‹…Ž—†‹‰ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǤŠ‡†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†‡–Š‘†‹••—„•–ƒ–‹ƒŽŽ›

–‹‡ƒ†”‡•‘—”…‡•ƒ˜‹‰…‘’ƒ”‡†–‘‡š‹•–‹‰‡–Š‘†•ˆ‘”‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒǤ

Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡†‡„”‹•™ƒ•…‘ŽŽ‡…–‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡–—‡Ž†—”‹‰–Š‡…‘•–”—…–‹‘™‘”ǡƒ†—•‡†

ˆ‘”–Š‡ Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‡š’‡”‹‡–•ǤŠ‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡™ƒ• ‰‡‘…Š‡‹…ƒŽŽ›…Žƒ••‹ˆ‹‡†–‘„‡ˆ”‘

Š‘”‹œ‘͵ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†Šƒ†Š‹‰ŠŽ‡˜‡Ž•‘ˆ^ʹ͵ͺȋƒ††ƒ—‰Š–‡”•Ȍƒ†

•–ƒ„Ž‡–”ƒ…‡‡Ž‡‡–•ǤŠ‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽȋȌ–‘–Š‡ƒ…‹†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘

’‘–‡–‹ƒŽȋȌ™ƒ•ƒ„‘—–ͲǤʹǡƒ†–Š‡†‡„”‹•™ƒ•…Ž‡ƒ”Ž›‡š’‡…–‡†–‘„‡ƒ…‹†’”‘†—…‹‰Ǥ

Š‡ ‡ˆˆ‡…– ‘ˆ ‘š›‰‡ ƒ……‡•• ‘ –Š‡ Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ †‡„”‹• ™ƒ•

‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š ‘‡Ǧ›‡ƒ” „ƒ–…Š ‡š’‡”‹‡–• ’‡”ˆ‘”‡† ‹ ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹… ‘š›‰‡

…‘†‹–‹‘• ȋȌ ƒ† Ž‘™ ‘š›‰‡ …‘†‹–‹‘• ȋȌǤ ‹‰Š •—Ž’Šƒ–‡ …‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•ǡ

‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›‹–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Šƒ–‡ˆ”‘–Š‡–”‡ƒ–‡–ǡ‹†‹…ƒ–‡†•—Ž’Š‹†‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ǡ„—––Š‡

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„—ˆˆ‡”…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡”‘…™ƒ•‘–†‡’Ž‡–‡†ƒˆ–‡”‘‡›‡ƒ”ǡƒ†’‹Ž‡ƒ…Šƒ–‡•‘ˆ„‘–Š

–”‡ƒ–‡–•™ƒ•͹Ǥ͹Ǥ‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡Ž‡‡–•™ƒ•‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••Š‹‰Šǡƒ†‹†‹…ƒ–‡†

–Šƒ–‡•’‡…‹ƒŽŽ›‘ǡ‹ǡǡ†ƒ†ƒ”‡‘ˆ‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‘…‡”ǤŠ‹Ž‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•˜ƒ”‹‡†

ˆ‘” †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‡Ž‡‡–•ǡ –Š‡ •–‘”ƒ‰‡ …‘†‹–‹‘• •‡‡‡† –‘ ‰‹˜‡ ƒ ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ •Ž‘™‡”

”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ‹ƒ–•–‘–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ

ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ„ƒ–…Š‡š’‡”‹‡–™ƒ••‡–—’–‘‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡‡ˆˆ‡…–•‘ˆ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆƒ–—”ƒŽ

™‡– Ȃ †”› …Ž‹ƒ–‹… …‘†‹–‹‘• ‘ –Š‡ Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ †‡„”‹•Ǥ Š‡ ‡ˆˆ‡…– ‘ˆ ƒȌ …›…Ž‹…

‡š…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Šƒ–‹…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Š–Š‡†‡„”‹•ǡƒ†„Ȍ’‡”‹‘†•‘ˆ†”›‹‰ƒ†™‡––‹‰

–Š‡”‘…†‡„”‹•™‡”‡‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†‘˜‡”ƒʹͺ™‡‡’‡”‹‘†Ǥ–Š‡–”‡ƒ–‡–ǡ–Š‡™ƒ–‡”

™ƒ•‡š…Šƒ‰‡†‡˜‡”›ͷ™‡‡•ǡƒ†‹–Š‡–”‡ƒ–‡––Š‡†‡„”‹•™ƒ•‡š’‘•‡†–‘…›…Ž‡•

‘ˆ͵™‡‡•‹™ƒ–‡”ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‡†„›ʹ™‡‡•†”›‹‰‹ƒ‹”Ǥ‰ƒ‹ǡ•—Ž’Šƒ–‡…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•

‹†‹…ƒ–‡†•—Ž’Š‹†‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ††”›‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡†‡„”‹••‡‡‡†–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

‘™‡˜‡”ǡ –Š‡ „—ˆˆ‡” …ƒ’ƒ…‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‡„”‹• ™ƒ• ‘– ‡š…‡‡†‡†ǡ ƒ† ƒ– –Š‡ ‡† ‘ˆ –Š‡

‡š’‡”‹‡–ǡ–Š‡’™ƒ•ƒ„‘—–͹Ǥ͸‹ –Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Šƒ–‡•‘ˆ„‘–Š–”‡ƒ–‡–•ǤŠ‡…‘–‡–‘ˆ

…ƒŽ…‹–‡ƒ†…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡•‹–Š‡†‡„”‹•ȋ”‡’”‡•‡–‹‰–Š‡Ȍ™ƒ•ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ”‡†—…‡†–‘Ž‡••

–ŠƒŠƒŽˆ‹„‘–Š–”‡ƒ–‡–•ƒ––Š‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡‡š’‡”‹‡–ǤŠ‡‡š’‡”‹‡–†‡‘•–”ƒ–‡†

–Šƒ–‡š…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”‹…”‡ƒ•‡†–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ‡Ž‡‡–•–Šƒ–Šƒ†Ž‹‹–‡†•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›ǡ•—…Š

ƒ••ǡǡƒƒ†^ʹʹ͸ƒǤ‡”‹‘†•‘ˆ†”›‹‰–Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡‹ƒ‹”‹…”‡ƒ•‡†Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ‹ǡǡ

‘ƒ†^ʹʹ͸ƒǡƒ†™‘—Ž†–Š‡”‡„›‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡‹”‘„‹Ž‹–›‹–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥš…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ

™ƒ–‡” ”‡•—Ž–‡† ‹ †‡’Ž‡–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹Š‡”‡– „—ˆˆ‡” …ƒ’ƒ…‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ™‹ŽŽ

‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡”‹•‘ˆƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•Ž‹‡Ž›”‡†—…‡–Š‡–‹‡„‡ˆ‘”‡‘•‡–‘ˆǤ

‡•—Ž–• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ Ǧ ‡š’‡”‹‡– ™‡”‡ …‘’ƒ”‡† –‘ …‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘• ‹ ™ƒ–‡”

•ƒ’Ž‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡†‹•’‘•ƒŽ•‹–‡ƒ–”ƒǤŠ‡™ƒ–‡”•ƒ’Ž‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡†‹•’‘•ƒŽ•‹–‡ǡŠƒ†

•‹‹Žƒ”’ǡƒƒ†ͶʹǦ…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•ǡ„—–—…ŠŽ‘™‡”…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ‘ǡǡ‘ǡ‹ǡ

ǡ†ƒ†ǡƒ†—…ŠŠ‹‰Š‡”…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ͵ǦǡŽ^Ǧǡƒǡ•ƒ†„Ǥ

‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘–Š‹•™‘”•Š‘™•–Šƒ–™Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡‘”‘–Š‡”ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰”‘…•ƒ”‡

•–‘”‡† ‹ ™ƒ–‡”ǡ ‹– ‹• …”—…‹ƒŽ –‘ ƒ˜‘‹† ‹–”—•‹‘ ‘ˆ ƒ‹” ƒ† ‡š…Šƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ ƒ–‡”

‡š…Šƒ‰‡™‹ŽŽŽ‡ƒ†–‘‘š›‰‡ƒ–‡†™ƒ–‡”…‘‹‰‹ǡ™Š‹…Š‹…”‡ƒ•‡•–Š‡•—Ž’Š‹†‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘

ƒ† –Š‡”‡„› ƒ…‹† ’”‘†—…–‹‘Ǥ —”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ …‘–ƒ‹ƒ–‡† ™ƒ–‡” …‘—Ž† Ž‡ƒ ‘—–ǡ ƒ†

†‹••‘Ž˜‡† …ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡• …‘—Ž† „‡ ™ƒ•Š‡† ‘—–ǡ †‡’Ž‡–‹‰ –Š‡ Ǥ Š—•ǡ ’”‘’‡” •–‘”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ

‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰”‘…•‹•‘ˆ…”—…‹ƒŽ‹’‘”–ƒ…‡–‘ƒ˜‘‹†

ƒ†˜‡”•‡‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ‡ˆˆ‡…–•Ǥ

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Sammendrag

Ž—•‹ˆ‡”‡”‡•›”‡’”‘†—•‡”‡†‡„‡”‰ƒ”–ƒ‘ˆ–‡•–Þ–‡”’¤‹‘”†Ǧ—”‘’ƒ‹ˆ‘”„‹†‡Ž•‡

‡† ‰”—˜‡†”‹ˆ– ‘‰ ƒŽ‡‰‰•ƒ”„‡‹†Ǥ ‡‡ •‹ˆ‡”‡ Šƒ” ‘ˆ–‡ ŠÞ›‡ ‹˜¤‡” ƒ˜ ƒ–—”Ž‹‰

ˆ‘”‡‘‡†‡ ”ƒ†‹‘ƒ–‹˜‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡” ȋƒ–—”ƒŽŽ› ……—””‹‰ ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•ǡ Ȍ‘‰•–ƒ„‹Ž‡•’‘”•–‘ˆˆ‡”ȋǼ–—‰‡–ƒŽŽ‡”ǽȌǤ—”ƒ˜”‡‹‰ȋ…‹†‘…”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡ǡȌ

‡†ŠÞ›‡‹˜¤‡”ƒ˜†‹••‡‰”—•–‘ˆˆ‡‡ƒ†‡”ˆ‘”—–˜‹Ž‡•‡‰—†‡”‰‹––‡„‡–‹‰‡Ž•‡”Ǥ

†‡”—–„›‰‰‹‰‡ƒ˜†‡›‡–—‡Ž‡’¤”ƒȋƒ†‡Žƒ†ǡ‘”‰‡Ȍ„Ž‡•–‘”‡‡‰†‡”

ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡” ‡† ŠÞ›‡ ‹˜¤‡” ƒ˜ ‰”ƒ˜† —–Ǥ –‡‹ƒ••‡‡ „Ž‡ „”—– –‹Ž ¤ ˆ›ŽŽ‡ ‡

—–‰”ƒ˜† ›” •‘ Ž¤ —†‡” †‡ ’ŽƒŽƒ‰–‡ ˜‡‹–”ƒ•±‡Ǥ †‡– ˆ‘”‡Ž‹‰‰‡†‡ ƒ”„‡‹†‡– „Ž‡

—–Ž‡‹‰•ˆ‘”•Þ ‡† ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡” ˆ”ƒ ”ƒ ‰Œ‡‘ˆÞ”– ˆ‘” ¤ —†‡”•Þ‡ ’‘–‡•‹‡ŽŽ

‘„‹Ž‹–‡–ƒ˜‘‰•–ƒ„‹Ž‡•’‘”•–‘ˆˆ‡” ˜‡†—Ž‹‡Žƒ‰”‹‰•ˆ‘”Š‘Ž†Ǥ ‘—•„Ž‡•’‡•‹‡Ž–

”‡––‡–‘–¤˜—”†‡”‡‘„‹Ž‹–‡–‡–‹Ž‹†‡’‘‹‡–ǡŠ˜‘”ƒ˜^ʹ͵ͺ‘‰—”ƒ†Þ–”‡•‘^ʹʹ͸ƒ

‡”˜‹–‹‰•–Ǥ

‘”¤—‡•ƒŽ‡†‡–ƒŽŒ‡”–‹ˆ‘”ƒ•Œ‘‘‘’’ˆÞ”•‡Ž‡–‹Ž^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹—–Ž‡‹‰•ˆ‘”•Þ‡‡

„Ž‡†‡–—–˜‹Ž‡–‡‡–‘†‡ˆ‘”†‹”‡–‡„‡•–‡‡Ž•‡ƒ˜^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹˜ƒ‘‰‘’’•Ž—––‡–‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹•

ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡ǡ ˜‡† „”— ƒ˜ –”‹’’‡Ž ˜ƒ†”—’‘Ž ‹†—–‹˜– ‘„Ž‡– ’Žƒ•ƒ ƒ••‡•’‡–”‘‡–”‹

ȋǦȌǤ ‡–‘†‡ „‡›––‡” ʹ •‘ ”‡ƒ•Œ‘•‰ƒ•• ˆ‘” ¤ —‰¤ ‹–‡”ˆ‡”‡•‡” ˜‡†

¤Ž‹‰Ǥ‡–‡•Œ‘•‰”‡•‡ˆ‘”˜ƒ’”Þ˜‡”˜ƒ”ͲǡͶʹ’‰^Ǧͳʹʹ͸ƒȋͳͷ“^ǦͳȌǡ‘‰‡–‘†‡

‘’’ˆ›ŽŽ‡”†‡”‡†”ƒ˜‡‡ˆ‘””—–‹‡ƒƒŽ›•‡”ƒ˜†”‹‡˜ƒ‹Š‡Š‘Ž†–‹Ž”‡‰‡Ž˜‡”‡‡‹

‘‰ǤƒŽ›•‡‡–‘†‡„Ž‡‘‰•¤„”—–ˆ‘”˜ƒ‡†ŠÞ›––‘–ƒŽ–‘’’ŽÞ•–ˆƒ•–•–‘ˆˆ‡––‡”

ˆ‘”–›‹‰ǡ•ƒ–ˆ‘”‘’’•Ž—––‡–‰‡‘Ž‘‰‹•ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡ǡ‹Ž—†‡”–ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”Ǥƒ‡Ž‹‰‡–

‡†‡•‹•–‡”‡†‡‡–‘†‡”ˆ‘”¤Ž‹‰ƒ˜^ʹʹ͸ƒ‡”†‡—–˜‹Ž‡†‡‡–‘†‡•§”†‡Ž‡•–‹†•Ǧ

‘‰”‡••—”•„‡•’ƒ”‡†‡Ǥ

Ž—•‹ˆ‡” –‹Ž —–Ž‡‹‰•ˆ‘”•Þ‡‡ „Ž‡ Š‡–‡– ˆ”ƒ –—‡Ž‡ ’¤ ”ƒ ‹

‘•–”—•Œ‘•’‡”‹‘†‡Ǥ––‡”‰‡‘Œ‡‹•Žƒ••‹ˆ‹•‡”‹‰„Ž‡ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”’”Þ˜‡„‡•–‡––‹Ž

¤˜§”‡ˆ”ƒŽƒ‰͵ƒ‹ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ˆ‘”ƒ•Œ‘‡Ǥ”Þ˜‡Šƒ††‡ŠÞ›‡‹˜¤‡”ƒ˜^ʹ͵ͺȋ‡††Þ–”‡Ȍ

•ƒ– •–ƒ„‹Ž‡ •’‘”•–‘ˆˆ‡”Ǥ ‘”Š‘Ž†‡– ‡ŽŽ‘ Þ›–”ƒŽ‹•‡”‹‰•’‘–‡•‹ƒŽ‡ ȋȌ ‘‰

•›”‡†ƒ‹‰•’‘–‡•‹ƒŽ‡ȋȌ˜ƒ”…ƒǤͲǡʹǡ‘‰ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡–˜ƒ”ˆÞŽ‰‡Ž‹‰ƒ–ƒ––¤˜§”‡‡––‘

•›”‡’”‘†—•‡”‡†‡Ǥ

ˆˆ‡–‡ ƒ˜ ‘•›‰‡–‹Ž‰ƒ‰ ’¤ —–Ž‡‹‰•’‘–‡•‹ƒŽ‡– –‹Ž ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡– „Ž‡

—†‡”•Þ– ‡† ‡– ‡––¤”‹‰ „ƒ–…Šˆ‘”•Þ —–ˆÞ”– ˜‡† ƒ–‘•ˆ§”‹•‡ ‘•›‰‡„‡–‹‰‡Ž•‡”

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ȋ–‘•’Š‡”‹… š›‰‡ ‘†‹–‹‘•ǡ Ȍ ‘‰ ˜‡† Ž‹–‡ ‘•›‰‡ –‹Ž‰Œ‡‰‡Ž‹‰ ȋ‘™ š›‰‡

‘†‹–‹‘•ǡ ȌǤ ޛ‡ ‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡” ƒ˜ •—Žˆƒ–ǡ •’‡•‹‡Ž– ‹ ˜ƒˆƒ•‡ ‹ Ǧ

„‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡ǡ ‹†‹‡”–‡ •—Žˆ‹†‘•‹†ƒ•Œ‘ǡ ‡ „—ˆˆ‡”ƒ’ƒ•‹–‡–‡ –‹Ž •‹ˆ‡”‡ ˜ƒ” ‹‡

‘˜‡”•”‡†‡–‡––‡”‡–¤”ǡ‘‰‹„‡‰‰‡„‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡‡˜ƒ”’‹˜ƒˆƒ•‡…ƒǤ͹ǡ͹Ǥ”‡‡

‰”—•–‘ˆˆ‡”„Ž‡ƒŽŽ‹‡˜‡Žˆ”‹‰Œ‘”–‹ŠÞ›‡‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡”ǡ‘‰•’‡•‹‡Ž–‘ǡ‹ǡǡ†‘‰

•ƒ’‡”‹ŽŒÞ‡••‹‰„‡›”‹‰Ǥ‡‡”‡Ž–•¤†‡–—––‹Žƒ–Žƒ‰”‹‰˜‡†„‡–‹‰‡Ž•‡”˜ƒ”

‰—•–‹‰ ˆ‘” ¤ ”‡†—•‡”‡ •’”‡†‹‰ ƒ˜ ’‘–‡•‹‡Ž– •ƒ†‡Ž‹‰‡ •–‘ˆˆ‡” –‹Ž ‹ŽŒÞ‡–ǡ ‡

”‡•—Ž–ƒ–‡‡˜ƒ”‹‡”–‡‘‡ˆ‘”†‡—Ž‹‡‰”—•–‘ˆˆ‡‡Ǥ

– ƒ‡– „ƒ–…Šˆ‘”•Þ „Ž‡ •ƒ–– ‘’’ ˆ‘” ¤ —†‡”•Þ‡ ‡ˆˆ‡–‡” ƒ˜ ˜§–‹‰ ‘‰ –Þ”‹‰ ƒ˜

ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”‡ ‡† –ƒ‡ ’¤ ƒ–—”Ž‹‰‡ Ž‹ƒ–‹•‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ•Œ‘‡”Ǥ ˆˆ‡–‡ ƒ˜ ƒȌ •›Ž‹•

—–•‹ˆ–‹‰ƒ˜˜ƒˆƒ•‡‹‘–ƒ–‡†ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡–ǡ‘‰„Ȍ’‡”‹‘†‡”‡†–Þ”‹‰

‘‰ ˜§–‹‰ ƒ˜ ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡– „Ž‡ —†‡”•Þ– ‹ ‡ ’‡”‹‘†‡ ’¤ ʹͺ —‡”Ǥ Ǧ

„‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡ „Ž‡ ˜ƒˆƒ•‡ •‹ˆ–‡– —– Š˜‡” ˆ‡–‡ —‡ǡ ‡• ‹ Ǧ„‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡ „Ž‡

ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡–‡•’‘‡”–ˆ‘”•›Ž—•‡”„‡•–¤‡†‡ƒ˜͵—‡”‹˜ƒ‡––‡”ˆ—Ž‰–ƒ˜ʹ

—‡”–Þ”‹‰‹Ž—ˆ–Ǥ‰•¤‹†‡––‡ˆ‘”•Þ‡–‹†‹‡”–‡•—Žˆƒ–‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡‡ƒ–†‡–ˆ‘”‡‰‹

‘•‹†ƒ•Œ‘ ƒ˜ •—Žˆ‹†‡”ǡ •ƒ– ƒ– –Þ”‹‰ ƒ˜ ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡– •¤ —– –‹Ž ¤ ލ‡ †‡‡

‘•‹†ƒ•Œ‘‡Ǥ —ˆˆ‡”ƒ’ƒ•‹–‡–‡ –‹Ž ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”‡ „Ž‡ ƒŽŽ‹‡˜‡Ž ‹‡ ‘˜‡”•”‡†‡–ǡ ‘‰ ’¤

•Ž—––‡ƒ˜ˆ‘”•Þ‡–˜ƒ”’ ‹ ˜ƒˆƒ•‡ ‘–”‡–͹ǡ͸ ˆ‘”„‡‰‰‡ „‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡‡Ǥ‘‰ ˜ƒ”

‹Š‘Ž†‡– ƒ˜ ƒŽ•‹–– ‘‰ ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡” ‹ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‡– ȋ†˜•Ǥ Ȍ ‡” ‡ ŠƒŽ˜‡”– ‹ „‡‰‰‡

„‡Šƒ†Ž‹‰‡‡‡––‡”ˆ‘”•Þ‡–Ǥ–•‹ˆ–‹‰ƒ˜˜ƒˆƒ•‡Þ–‡—–Ž‡‹‰‡ƒ˜‰”—•–‘ˆˆ‡”

‡†Žƒ˜ŽÞ•‡Ž‹‰Š‡–ǡˆ‘”‡•‡’‡Ž•ǡǡƒ‘‰^ʹʹ͸ƒǤ‡”‹‘†‡”‡†–Þ”‹‰ƒ˜ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”‡

‹Ž—ˆ–ލ–‡—–Ž‡‹‰‡ƒ˜‹ǡǡ‘‘‰^ʹʹ͸ƒǡ‘‰ˆ‘”˜‡–‡•¤Þ‡‘„‹Ž‹–‡–‡ƒ˜†‹••‡‹

‹ŽŒÞ‡–Ǥ –•‹ˆ–‹‰ ƒ˜ ˜ƒˆƒ•‡ ”‡•—Ž–‡”–‡ ‹ —–ƒ”‹‰ ƒ˜ ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”‡• ‹„‘‡†‡

„—ˆˆ‡”ƒ’ƒ•‹–‡–ǡ ‘‡ •‘ ˜‹Ž ލ‡ ”‹•‹‘‡ ˆ‘” •—” ƒ˜”‡‹‰ ȋȌ ‘‰ •ƒ•›Ž‹‰˜‹•

”‡†—•‡”‡–‹†‡ˆÞ”†‡–‹–”‡ˆˆ‡”Ǥ

‡•—Ž–ƒ–‡” ˆ”ƒ Ǧ ‡•’‡”‹‡–‡– „Ž‡ •ƒ‡Ž‹‰‡– ‡† ‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡” ‹

˜ƒ’”Þ˜‡”ˆ”ƒƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”†‡’‘‹‡–’¤”ƒǤƒ’”Þ˜‡‡ˆ”ƒ†‡’‘‹‡–Šƒ††‡Ž‹‰‡†‡

’‘‰‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡”ƒ˜ƒ‘‰ͶʹǦǡ‡›‡Žƒ˜‡”‡‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡”ƒ˜‘ǡǡ‘ǡ‹ǡ

ǡ†‘‰ǡ•ƒ–›‡ŠÞ›‡”‡‘•‡–”ƒ•Œ‘‡”ƒ˜͵ǦǡŽ^Ǧǡƒǡ•‘‰„Ǥ

‡•—Ž–ƒ–‡”ˆ”ƒ†‡––‡ƒ”„‡‹†‡–˜‹•‡”ƒ–†‡”•‘ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”‡ŽŽ‡”ƒ†”‡•›”‡’”‘†—•‡”‡†‡

•–‡‹ƒ••‡” Žƒ‰”‡• ‹ ˜ƒ ‡” †‡– ƒ˜ ƒ˜‰ŒÞ”‡†‡ „‡–›†‹‰ ¤ —‰¤ Ž—ˆ–‹ˆ‹Ž–”ƒ•Œ‘ ‘‰

—–•‹ˆ–‹‰ƒ˜˜ƒ‡–Ǥ–•‹ˆ–‹‰ƒ˜˜ƒ‡–˜‹ŽˆÞ”‡–‹Žƒ–‘•›‰‡”‹–˜ƒ‘‡”‹ǡ‘‡

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•‘ ލ‡” •—Žˆ‹†‘•‹†ƒ•Œ‘‡ ‘‰ †‡”‡† •›”‡’”‘†—•Œ‘‡Ǥ ‹†‡”‡ ˆÞ”‡” —–•‹ˆ–‹‰ ƒ˜

˜ƒ‡––‹Žƒ–ˆ‘”—”‡•‡–˜ƒŽ‡‡”—–•ƒ–ƒ–ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡”‹ŽÞ•‹‰ˆŒ‡”‡•ǡŠ˜‹Ž‡–ˆÞ”‡”

–‹Ž ‡ —–ƒ”‹‰ ƒ˜ Þ›–”ƒŽ‹•‡”‹‰•’‘–‡•‹ƒŽ‡–Ǥ ގ‰‡Ž‹‰ ‡” ”‹–‹‰ Žƒ‰”‹‰ ƒ˜

ƒŽ—•‹ˆ‡”ƒ••‡” ‘‰ ƒ†”‡ •›”‡†ƒ‡†‡ „‡”‰ƒ”–‡” ƒ˜‰ŒÞ”‡†‡ ˆ‘” ¤ —‰¤ ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡

‡ˆˆ‡–‡”’¤‹ŽŒÞ‡–Ǥ

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List of papers

Paper I:§”•–‡†ǡ ǤǤǡ‡•‡ǡǤǤǡ‡‹‘•‘Ǧƒ•‡–ǡǤǡƬ‹’’‡”—†ǡǤȋʹͲͳͺȌǤHigh Throughput, Direct Determination of ²²⁶Ra in Water and Digested Geological Samples.

ƒŽ›–‹…ƒŽŠ‡‹•–”›ǡͻͲȋʹͲȌǡͳʹʹͶ͸ǦͳʹʹͷʹǤ†‘‹ǣͳͲǤͳͲʹͳȀƒ…•ǤƒƒŽ…Š‡Ǥͺ„Ͳ͵ͶͻͶ Paper II: §”•–‡†ǡ Ǥ Ǥǡ ‡‹‘•‘Ǧƒ•‡–ǡ Ǥǡ ƒŽ„—ǡ Ǥǡ Ƭ ‹’’‡”—†ǡ Ǥ ȋƒ—•…”‹’–ȌǤ Rainwater leaching of alum shale debris under atmospheric and low oxygen conditions.

Paper III:§”•–‡†ǡ ǤǤǡ‹••ǡǤǤǡƬ‹’’‡”—†ǡǤȋƒ—•…”‹’–ȌǤThe effect of water exchange on the leaching of alum shale.

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Other work

Peer-reviewed publications

…ŠÚ’‡ǡǤǡ§”•–‡†ǡ ǤǤǡ‡•‡ǡǤǤƬ‹’’‡”—†ǡǤȋƒ—•…”‹’–ȌUranium and toxic metal uptake by the earthworm ‹•‡‹ƒŠ‘”–‡•‹•in contaminated soilsǤ

‹’’‡”—†ǡ Ǥǡ ‡‹‡ǡ ǤǦǤǡ ‘ŽŽ‡ˆ•‡ǡ Ǥ Ǥǡ ƬǤ §”•–‡†ǡ Ǥ ȋƒ—•…”‹’–ȌDispersion, Transfer and Risk of NOR and Metals due to Construction in U-bearing Minerals.

ŠÞ””‹‰ǡ Ǥǡ §”•–‡†ǡ Ǥ Ǥǡ ƒƒ‡••ǡ Ǥǡ ‹’’‡”—†ǡ Ǥ Ƭ ‡•‡ǡ Ǥ Ǥ ȋƒ—•…”‹’–Ȍ Natural radioactivity in forest and mountain areas of arctic Norway – local geology, soil characteristics, and transfer to biota.

‡‹‡ǡ ǤǦǤǡ §”•–‡†ǡ Ǥ Ǥǡ Œ—Ž•–ƒ†ǡ Ǥ ‡”–‡ŽǦƒ•ǡ Ǥ Ƭ ‹’’‡”—†ǡ Ǥ ȋƒ—•…”‹’–Ȍ Leaching, uptake and effects in brown trout (ƒŽ‘–”—––ƒ) of radionuclides and metals from black shales and sulphur bearing gneissǤ

Other publications

‡•‡ǡǤǤǡ ‹‡ǡǤǡŠÞ””‹‰ǡǤǡ‘Ž•–ƒ†ǡǤǡƒ•Ǧƒ•‡ǡ]Ǥǡƒƒ‡••ǡǤǡƒ–•‘ǡǤǤǡ

ƒ”ƒ™ƒŽǡǤǤǡސ‹‰ǡǤǤǡ§”•–‡†ǡ ǤǤǡ‹’’‡”—†ǡǤǡƬ‘”ƒǡǤǤȋʹͲͳͺȌOne uranium mountain – different trails to the summit. ”ƒ ‘”—Ǥ ‡–”‹‡˜‡† ˆ”‘

Š––’•ǣȀȀ‹••——Ǥ…‘Ȁˆ”ƒ…‡–”‡Ȁ†‘…•Ȁˆ”ƒˆ‘”—ǦʹͲͳͺǦ‹••——

‹’’‡”—†ǡǤǡŽ˜ƒ”‡‰ƒǡǤǡ‹†ǡǤǤǡ‡‹‡ǡǤǦǤǡ‘ŽŽ‡ˆ•‡ǡǤǤǡƒŽ„—ǡǤǡƬ§”•–‡†ǡ ǤǤȋʹͲͳ͸ȌǤEffekter og miljørisiko knyttet til inngrep i områder med sulfidrike mineraler.

Case: Deponi i forbindelse med tunnelbygging i alunskiferområderȋ͸ͷͳȌǤ‡–”‹‡˜‡†ˆ”‘

Š––’•ǣȀȀ™™™Ǥ˜‡‰˜‡•‡Ǥ‘Ȁˆƒ‰Ȁ’—„Ž‹ƒ•Œ‘‡”Ȁ’—„Ž‹ƒ•Œ‘‡”Ȁ–ƒ–‡•Ϊ˜‡‰˜‡•‡•Ϊ”ƒ’’‘

”–‡”

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Abbreviations

ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…‘š›‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•

ƒ…‹†‹‡†”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡

ƒ…‹†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ

ƒ…‹†”‘…†”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡

…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘”ƒ–‹‘

…‡”–‹ˆ‹‡†”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ

†‡–‡…–‹‘Ž‹‹–

†‹••‘Ž˜‡†‘”‰ƒ‹……ƒ”„‘

Ǧ ‹†—…–‹˜‡Ž›…‘—’Ž‡†’Žƒ•ƒƒ•••’‡…–”‘‡–”›

Ǧ –”‹’Ž‡“—ƒ†”—’‘Ž‡Ǧ

ƒ ‹Ž‘†ƒŽ–‘

•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›’”‘†—…–

Ž‘™‘Ž‡…—Žƒ”ƒ••ȋδͳͲƒȌ

Ž‘™‘š›‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•

Ž‘••‘‹‰‹–‹‘

‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘Ǧ”‡†—…–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ

’’ ’ƒ”–•’‡”‹ŽŽ‹‘

ƒ–—”ƒŽŽ›‘……—””‹‰”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽȋ•Ȍ ‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ

‘”™‡‰‹ƒ—„Ž‹…‘ƒ†•†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹‘ȋ–ƒ–‡•‡‰˜‡•‡Ȍ

‡—–”ƒŽ”‘…†”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡

“—ƒ–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘Ž‹‹–

ʹ ’ƒ”–‹ƒŽ’”‡••—”‡‘ˆʹ

”ƒ”‡‡ƒ”–Š‡Ž‡‡–•

”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘

•—’’‘”–‹‰‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘

–‘– –‘–ƒŽ•—Ž’Š—”

–‘–ƒŽ†‹••‘Ž˜‡†•‘Ž‹†•

–‘–ƒŽ‹‘”‰ƒ‹……ƒ”„‘

–‘–ƒŽ‘”‰ƒ‹……ƒ”„‘

Ǧ”ƒ›†‹ˆˆ”ƒ…–‹‘

ρǦ ‹…”‘Ǧ”ƒ›ˆŽ—‘”‡•…‡…‡

Element symbols

Ž ƒŽ—‹‹—

‰ •‹Ž˜‡”

• ƒ”•‡‹…

— ‰‘Ž†

„‘”‘

ƒ „ƒ”‹—

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ƒ …ƒŽ…‹—

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Ž …ŠŽ‘”‹‡

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š˜‹‹‹

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‡ ‰‡”ƒ‹—

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‰ ‡”…—”›

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 ƒ‰ƒ‡•‡

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‹ ‹…‡Ž

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ƒ ”ƒ†‹—

„ ”—„‹†‹—

Š ”Š‘†‹—

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‹ •‹Ž‹…‘

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ͳ

1 Introduction

”—•Š‡†”‘…ƒ••‡•’”‘†—…‡†‹‹‹‰ƒ†…‘•–”—…–‹‘™‘””‡’”‡•‡–ƒ‹’‘”–ƒ–

•‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ ƒ–—”ƒŽŽ› ‘……—””‹‰ ”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ• ȋȌ ƒ† •–ƒ„Ž‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• –Šƒ–

’‘–‡–‹ƒŽŽ›…ƒ„‡”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡†–‘–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ”‘…‡••‹‰ƒ†•–‘”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ”‘…ƒ••‡•

—†‡” …‘†‹–‹‘• †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ƒ–—”ƒŽ †‡’‘•‹– ƒ› ‡š’‘•‡ –Š‡ ”‘… •—”ˆƒ…‡• –‘

™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰ǡƒ†…ƒ•—„•‡“—‡–Ž›…ƒ—•‡”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡‘ˆŠƒ”ˆ—Ž‡Ž‡‡–•–‘–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ

‡”–ƒ‹–›’‡•‘ˆ”‘……ƒ’”‘†—…‡ƒ…‹†™Š‡‡š’‘•‡†–‘ƒ‹”ƒ†™ƒ–‡”ǡ…ƒ—•‹‰acid rock drainageȋȌǡ™Š‹…Š‰”‡ƒ–Ž›‡Šƒ…‡•–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡Ž‡‡–•ˆ”‘–Š‡”‘…•ǡ

ƒ†–Š‡”‡„›‹…”‡ƒ•‡•–Š‡”‹•‘ˆƒ†˜‡”•‡‡ˆˆ‡…–•‘†‘™•–”‡ƒ‘”‰ƒ‹••ǤŠ‹•‹•ƒ

™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ† ’”‘„Ž‡ ‹ ‹‹‰ ƒ”‡ƒ• ȋacid mine drainageǡ Ȍ ƒ† ‹ ‘–Š‡” ’Žƒ…‡•

™Š‡”‡ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰”‘…•ƒ”‡™‡ƒ–Š‡”‡†ȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲǢ˜ƒ‘‘Ƭ—ˆˆ›ǡ ʹͲͳͳȌǤ

Ž— •ŠƒŽ‡ ‹• ƒ ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰ –›’‡ ‘ˆ ”‘… …‘‘Ž› ‡…‘—–‡”‡† ‹ …‘•–”—…–‹‘

™‘”‹–Š‡•Ž‘‡‰‹‘‘ˆ‘”™ƒ›ȋ ‹‰—”‡ͳȌǤʹͲͳ͵ǦʹͲͳͷǡƒ–—‡Ž™ƒ•…‘•–”—…–‡†–‘

–ƒ‡ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ”‘ƒ†‘ǤͶȋ‹•˜‡‹ͶȌƒ”‘—†”ƒ…‡–”‡ǡƒ†‡Žƒ†ǡƒ†ƒ„‘—–͸͸ͷͲͲ^͵

‘ˆ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ ™‡”‡ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‘…‡••Ǥ Š‡ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ †‡„”‹• ˆ”‘ –Š‡ –—‡Ž

…‘•–”—…–‹‘™ƒ•—•‡†–‘ˆ‹ŽŽƒ„‘‰•‹–—ƒ–‡†ƒ––Š‡•‘—–Š‡”‡–”ƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡–—‡Žǡ’ƒ”–Ž›

—†‡”Ž›‹‰–Š‡‡™”‘ƒ†Ǥ

Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡‹•‘ˆ–‡‡”‹…Š‡†‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽŽ›’”‘„Ž‡ƒ–‹…–”ƒ…‡‡Ž‡‡–•ƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•

ǡ•’‡…‹ˆ‹…ƒŽŽ›–Š‡—”ƒ‹—Ǧ•‡”‹‡•ȋ ƒŽ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͸Ǣ™‡‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͲǢƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ•—”ƒ‹—Ǧʹ͵ͺȋ^ʹ͵ͺȌ†‡…ƒ›•ǡŠ‹‰ŠŽ›”ƒ†‹‘–‘š‹…†ƒ—‰Š–‡”—…Ž‹†‡•Ž‹‡”ƒ†‹—Ǧ ʹʹ͸ȋ^ʹʹ͸ƒȌƒ”‡’”‘†—…‡†Ǥ—”‹‰™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡”‘…ǡ–Š‡•‡•–ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡

‡Ž‡‡–• …ƒ „‡ ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡† ‹ ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽŽ› Šƒ”ˆ—Ž ƒ‘—–• ‹–‘ –Š‡ •—””‘—†‹‰•Ǥ

‡””‡•–”‹ƒŽ ƒ† ƒ“—ƒ–‹… „‹‘–ƒ †‘™•–”‡ƒ ‘ˆ ™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰ ”‘… ƒ••‡• …ƒ –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡

‡š’‡”‹‡…‡ƒmultiple stressor scenario™‹–Š‡š’‘•—”‡–‘Šƒ”ˆ—ŽŽ‡˜‡Ž•‘ˆ„‘–Š•–ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†

”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡‡Ž‡‡–•’‘••‹„Ž›ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Šƒ…‹†‹…™ƒ–‡”Ǥ ”‘ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǡ’”‘†—…–‹‘

‘ˆ ƒ…‹† ‹• ‡š’‡…–‡† ™Š‡ –Š‡ ”‘… •—”ˆƒ…‡ ‹• ‡š’‘•‡† –‘ ƒ‹” ƒ† ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ • ƒ ”‡•—Ž–ǡ

‹…”‡ƒ•‡†Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆƒ—„‡”‘ˆ‡Ž‡‡–•‹•Ž‹‡Ž›™Š‡†‡„”‹•‹••–‘”‡†™‹–Šˆ”‡‡ƒ……‡••

–‘ ƒ‹”Ǥ …‹† ’”‘†—…–‹‘ ‹• ‘– ‡š’‡…–‡† ‹ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ ‡’– —†‡” ƒ‘š‹… …‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ

‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡”‡…ƒ•–‹ŽŽ„‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡Ž‡‡–•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡•‘Ž—„Ž‡„›…‹”…—‡—–”ƒŽ

’ǡ‰‹˜‹‰neutral rock drainageȋȌǡ „—––Š‡ ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡”ƒ–‡ ‹• ‡š’‡…–‡†–‘ „‡ •Ž‘™‡”

ʹ

…‘’ƒ”‡†–‘„›Ž‘™’˜ƒŽ—‡•ǤŠ—•ǡˆ‘”–Š‡•–‘”ƒ‰‡•‹–‡ƒ–”ƒǡ‡ƒ•—”‡•™‡”‡–ƒ‡–‘

”‡†—…‡™ƒ–‡”‡š…Šƒ‰‡ƒ†Š‹†‡”‘š›‰‡‹–”—•‹‘‹–‘–Š‡•–‘”‡†ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ƒ••‡•Ǥ

‹‰—”‡ͳǣƒ’ˆ‘””ƒ†‘”‹•ǡ‡ƒ•–‡”‘”™ƒ›ǤŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ƒ”‡ƒ•ƒ”‡ƒ”‡†‹†ƒ”‰”‡›ȋ‡š–”ƒŠ‹‰Š”ƒ†‘

”‹•ǡȋǡʹͲͳ͸ȌȌǤ‘†‹ˆ‹‡†ˆ”‘ȋʹͲͳͻȌǤ

Š‡”‡‹•ƒŽ‘–‘ˆ…‘•–”—…–‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‹–›‰‘‹‰‘‹ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǡ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ‹–Š‡•Ž‘ƒ”‡ƒƒ†

ˆ—”–Š‡” ‘”–Š ‘ „‘–Š •‹†‡• ‘ˆ ƒ‡ ŒÞ•ƒ –‘ ‹ŽŽ‡Šƒ‡”Ǥ ”‘Œ‡…–• Ž‹‡ –Š‡ ‡™

‰‘˜‡”‡–ƒŽ“—ƒ”–‡”•ȋǡʹͲͳͻ„Ȍƒ†–”ƒ‹–—‡Žˆ”‘‹–‘•Ž‘ȋ ‘ŽŽ‘„ƒ‡Ȍȋǡ

͵

ʹͲͳͻƒȌ ‰‡‡”ƒ–‡ Žƒ”‰‡ ƒ‘—–• ‘ˆ ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ –Šƒ– ‡‡† –‘ „‡ Šƒ†Ž‡† ƒ†

•–‘”‡† ’”‘’‡”Ž›Ǥ Š‡ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ ˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ ‰‡…› Šƒ• ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ‰—‹†‡Ž‹‡• ˆ‘”

…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹œƒ–‹‘ǡŠƒ†Ž‹‰ƒ†•–‘”ƒ‰‡‘ˆƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰ ”‘… ȋ†”‡ Ƭ ޔ‘ǡʹͲͳͷǢ ޔ‘‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͷȌǤŠ‡†‡’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ˆ”‘…‘•–”—…–‹‘™‘”‹•ƒŽ•‘”‡‰—Žƒ–‡†

‹‘”™‡‰‹ƒŽƒ™Ǥ Š‡ ‘ŽŽ—–‹‘‘–”‘Ž…–ȋ ‘”—”‡•‹‰•ˆ‘”•”‹ˆ–‡ǡȚʹǦ͵ȌȋʹͲͲͶȌ

†‡ˆ‹‡•…‘–ƒ‹ƒ–‡†‰”‘—†ƒ••‘‹Ž‘”„‡†”‘…–Šƒ–’”‘†—…‡•ƒ…‹†‘”‘–Š‡”•—„•–ƒ…‡•

–Šƒ–…ƒ…ƒ—•‡…‘–ƒ‹ƒ–‹‘‹…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Š™ƒ–‡”ƒ†Ȁ‘”ƒ‹”Ǥ ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ƒ‡†‡–•

’‡”ˆ‘”‡†‹ʹͲͳͳǡ–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•‘ƒ’’Ž‹‡•–‘Ǥ ‘”ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ…‘–ƒ‹‹‰ƒ–—”ƒŽ

ʹ͵ͺ‹•‡…—Žƒ”‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–ŠƒŽŽ†ƒ—‰Š–‡”—…Ž‹†‡•ǡ–Š‡Ž‹‹–ˆ‘””ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡™ƒ•–‡‹•

ͳ“^ʹ͵ͺ‰^Ǧͳ ȋൎͺͲ‰‰^ǦͳȌ ȋ–”¤Ž‡˜‡”•ˆ‘”•”‹ˆ–‡ǡ ʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ ‘”™‡‰‹ƒ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡•

Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ˆ‘—†–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒ„‘—–ʹͲǦͶͲͲ‰‰^Ǧͳȋƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸Ȍƒ†ŽŽ‘™ƒ›ȋʹͲͳ͵Ȍ

”‡’‘”–•…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•—’–‘ͳǡʹͷͲ‰‰^Ǧͳˆ‘”„Žƒ…•ŠƒŽ‡•™‘”Ž†™‹†‡Ǥ

–Š‹•™‘”ǡŽ‡ƒ…Š‹‰ˆ”‘ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡—†‡”†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•–‘”ƒ‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•‹•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†

‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ–Š‡’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‹’ƒ…–‘ˆ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡‘ˆ–”ƒ…‡‡Ž‡‡–•ƒ†ˆ”‘•—…Š

•–‘”ƒ‰‡•‹–‡•‘–Š‡Ž‘…ƒŽ‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ’Šƒ•‹•‹•‰‹˜‡–‘”ƒ†‹‘—…Ž‹†‡•ǡ„‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡

‘”‡ Ž‹‹–‡† ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ –Š‡‹” „‡Šƒ˜‹‘—” ‹ …‘’ƒ”‹•‘ –‘ –”ƒ…‡

‡Ž‡‡–•ǤŠ‹•‹•’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›–”—‡ˆ‘”^ʹʹ͸ƒǡˆ‘”™Š‹…Š–Š‡”‡‹•Ž‹––Ž‡ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡‹–Š‡

Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡‘Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ˆ”‘„Žƒ…•ŠƒŽ‡•‘˜‡”–‹‡—†‡””‡Ž‡˜ƒ–•–‘”ƒ‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ

Š‡–—‡Ž…‘•–”—…–‹‘ƒ–”ƒŠƒ•„‡‡—•‡†ƒ•ƒ…ƒ•‡•–—†›ǡƒ†‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ˆ”‘

”‡Žƒ–‡† ˆ‹‡Ž†™‘” ƒ† ‡š’‡”‹‡–• ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‰ „‹‘ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ ”ƒ†‹‘—…Ž‹†‡• ƒ†

•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•‹–Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ƒ†–Š‡‹”‡ˆˆ‡…–•‘„‹‘–ƒƒ”‡‹…Ž—†‡†‹–Š‡†‹•…—••‹‘Ǥ

1.1 Research aims and hypotheses

Š‡‘˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ƒ‹‘ˆ–Š‹•–Š‡•‹•™ƒ•–‘ƒ••‡••–Š‡’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡ƒ†‘„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ‡›

”ƒ†‹‘—…Ž‹†‡• ƒ† •–ƒ„Ž‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• ‹ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ —†‡” †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– •–‘”ƒ‰‡ …‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ

ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”ˆ‘…—•™ƒ•†‹”‡…–‡†–‘™ƒ”†ƒ•–Š‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‹•Ž‹‹–‡†Ǥ

Š‡ƒ‹•ˆ‘”–Š‹•™‘”…ƒ„‡•—ƒ”‹œ‡†ƒ•ǣ

ͳǤ ‡˜‡Ž‘’ƒ‡–Š‘†ˆ‘”“—‹…ƒ†‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–“—ƒ–‹–ƒ–‹˜‡†‡–‡”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ–‘

„‡––‡”ƒ••‡••‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ…‘•‡“—‡…‡•

ʹǤ ˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ –Š‡ Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ ‘ˆ ƒ† •–ƒ„Ž‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• ˆ”‘ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ ™Š‡

•–‘”‡†‹™ƒ–‡”—†‡”ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…ƒ†Ž‘™‘š›‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•

Ͷ

͵Ǥ ˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‘ˆ‡š…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ƒ†’‡”‹‘†•‘ˆ†”›‹‰‘–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰

‘ˆƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•ˆ”‘ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡

ͶǤ ˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡ Š‘™ –Š‡ „—ˆˆ‡” …ƒ’ƒ…‹–› ‘ˆ •–‘”‡† †‡„”‹• ‹• ƒˆˆ‡…–‡† „› †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–

’”‘…‡••‡•—†‡”˜ƒ”›‹‰•–‘”ƒ‰‡…‘†‹–‹‘•

—”–Š‡”‘”‡ǡ•‘‡Š›’‘–Š‡•‡•™‡”‡ˆ‘”—Žƒ–‡†ǣ

ͳǤ ˜‡™‹–Š‘—–ƒ’†”‘’ǡ–Š‡”‡™‹ŽŽ„‡…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ‡Ž‡‡–•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡

•‘Ž—„Ž‡ ƒ– ƒ …‹”…—‡—–”ƒŽ ’ǡ ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ‹ ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽŽ› Šƒ”ˆ—Ž ™ƒ–‡”

…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘•

ʹǤ ”›‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡†‡„”‹•„‡–™‡‡’‡”‹‘†•‘ˆ•—„‡”•‹‘™‹ŽŽŽ‡ƒ†–‘‰”‡ƒ–‡”’›”‹–‡

‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ƒ†‹…”‡ƒ•‡†Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆƒ”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ‡Ž‡‡–•

͵Ǥ š…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”™‹ŽŽŽ‡ƒ†–‘ˆƒ•–‡”†‡’Ž‡–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡„—ˆˆ‡”…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡†‡„”‹•

ͶǤ ƒ™‹ŽŽˆ‘ŽŽ‘™ƒƒ†„‡Ž‹‹–‡†„›ƒͶ•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›ǡƒ†–Š—•Šƒ˜‡Ž‘™‡”‘„‹Ž‹–›

ƒ•’›”‹–‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡•

ͷǤ š…Šƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ™ƒ–‡” ™‹ŽŽ ‹…”‡ƒ•‡ –Š‡ ‘„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ ‡Ž‡‡–• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ Ž‹‹–‡† „›

•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›…‘•–”ƒ‹–•ǡŽ‹‡^ʹʹ͸ƒƒ†ƒ

‘‡ƒ„Ž‡†‡–ƒ‹Ž‡†‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡‘„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ǡƒ‡–Š‘†™ƒ•

†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†ˆ‘”†‹”‡…–‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆ^ʹʹ͸ƒ‹™ƒ–‡”ƒ††‹‰‡•–‡†•ƒ’Ž‡•‹ƒ’‡”Ǥ

ƒ’‡” ǡ –Š‡ Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ ‘ˆ •–ƒ„Ž‡ ƒ† ”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡ ‡Ž‡‡–• ˆ”‘ ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ †‡„”‹• ‹

ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹… ƒ† Ž‘™ ‘š›‰‡ …‘†‹–‹‘• ™ƒ• ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†Ǥ  ƒ’‡” ǡ –Š‡ ‡ˆˆ‡…– ‘ˆ

‡š…Šƒ‰‹‰™ƒ–‡”ƒ††”›‹‰‘ˆ†‡„”‹•‘–Š‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆ•–ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡‡Ž‡‡–•

ˆ”‘ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡™ƒ•‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†Ǥ

ͷ

2 Background 2.1 Alum shale

‹‰—”‡ʹǣ™‡ƒ–Š‡”‡†ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ˆ”‘–Š‡–—‡Ž…‘•–”—…–‹‘ƒ–”ƒǤ

Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡ȋ ‹‰—”‡ ʹȌ ‹• ƒ •‡†‹‡–ƒ”›”‘…ˆ‘”‡†ˆ”‘•‡†‹‡–• †‡’‘•‹–‡†—†‡”

”‡†—…‹‰…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ–‹•ƒ„Žƒ…•ŠƒŽ‡ȋ„Žƒ…—†”‘…Ȍˆ‘”‡†‹–Š‡ƒ„”‘Ǧ”†‘˜‹…‹ƒ

’‡”‹‘†ǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡƒ„‘—–ͷͲͲ‹ŽŽ‹‘›‡ƒ”•ƒ‰‘ȋ™‡‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͲǢ‹’‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͺȌǤŽƒ…

•ŠƒŽ‡• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘—† –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –Š‡ ™‘”Ž†ǡ ™‹–Š ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž› Žƒ”‰‡ †‡’‘•‹–• ‹ ‘”–Š‡”

—”‘’‡ƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•—••‹ƒǡǡƒƒ†ƒǡ—•–”ƒŽ‹ƒǡŠ‹ƒƒ†”ƒœ‹ŽȋŽŽ‘™ƒ›ǡʹͲͳ͵ȌǤ

‰‡‡”ƒŽǡƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡•ƒ”‡ƒƒ…‹†’”‘†—…‹‰–›’‡‘ˆ”‘…ǡ…ƒ—•‹‰ƒ…‹†”‘…†”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡ȋȌ ȋƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ‘”™ƒ›ǡƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡‹•ƒ‹Ž›ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡•Ž‘‡‰‹‘ȋ†”‡Ƭ ޔ‘ǡʹͲͳͷȌǤ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰”‘……ƒ„‡‡…‘—–‡”‡†‹Žƒ”‰‡’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡

…‘—–”›ȋ†”‡Ƭޔ‘ǡʹͲͳͷȌǤŠ‡”†‘˜‹…‹ƒ•—……‡••‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡•Ž‘”‡‰‹‘Šƒ˜‡„‡‡

†‡•…”‹„‡†„›™‡‡–ƒŽǤȋͳͻͻͲȌǤ‡”‡ǡ–Š‡•‘‡™Šƒ–•‹’Ž‹ˆ‹‡†Ž‹–Š‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ‰”‘—’‹‰‘ˆ

ƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤȋʹͲͳ͸Ȍ‹•—•‡†ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Š‘”‹œ‘•Šƒ˜‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡…‘’‘•‹–‹‘•ƒ†–Š—•

†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’‘–‡–‹ƒŽˆ‘”ƒ…‹†’”‘†—…–‹‘ƒ†Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰‘ˆƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•ǤŠ‡

ƒŽ— •ŠƒŽ‡ ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ …‘’”‹•‡• Š‘”‹œ‘• ͳ –‘ ͵ƒǡ ™Š‡”‡ –Š‡ Ž‘™‡”‘•– Š‘”‹œ‘ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ

Š‘”‹œ‘ͳǡƒ‹Ž›…‘•‹•–•‘ˆȋ‘–Ǧƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰Ȍ•ƒ†•–‘‡ǡ™Š‹Ž‡Š‘”‹œ‘•ʹƒ†͵ƒ

Šƒ˜‡Š‹‰Š…‘–‡–‘ˆ‘”‰ƒ‹…ƒ––‡”ƒ†•—Ž’Š‹†‡•ǡƒ†ƒ”‡–Š‡ˆ‘…—•‘ˆ–Š‹•™‘”ǤŠ‡

ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘”ƒ‰‡•‹–Š‹…‡••ˆ”‘ƒ„‘—–ʹͲ–‘ƒŽ‘•–ͳͲͲ‡–”‡•ȋ™‡‡–

ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͲȌǤ

Š‡ƒ‹—•‡‘ˆƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡Šƒ•„‡‡ˆ‘”’”‘†—…–‹‘‘ˆƒŽ—•ƒŽ–ȋŠ›†”ƒ–‡†ƒŽ—‹‹—

•—Ž’Šƒ–‡ǡ‘•–…‘‘Ž›™‹–Š’‘–ƒ••‹—ǡŽȋͶȌέͳʹʹȌǡ™Š‹…ŠŠ‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽŽ›Šƒ•„‡‡

͸

—•‡† ˆ‘” —Ž–‹’Ž‡ ’—”’‘•‡• ‹…Ž—†‹‰ –ƒ‹‰ ‘ˆ Š‹†‡ǡ ˆ‹š‹‰ ‘ˆ …‘Ž‘—”• ‹ –Š‡ –‡š–‹Ž‡

‹†—•–”›ƒ†‹’Šƒ”ƒ…‡—–‹…ƒŽ•ȋ†‡”••‘‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͺͷȌǤŠ‡‡”‘‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡

Šƒ•„‡‡—•‡†ˆ‘”‘‹Ž’”‘†—…–‹‘‹™‡†‡ȋ†‡”••‘‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͺͷȌǡƒ†ʹ͵Ψ‘ˆ‰ƒ•

’”‘†—…–‹‘‹–Š‡‹ʹͲͳͲ™ƒ•‡š–”ƒ…–‡†ˆ”‘•ŠƒŽ‡•™‹–Šˆ”ƒ…‹‰ȋ”Ž•–”ڏǡʹͲͳͶȌǤ

Ž—•ŠƒŽ‡Šƒ•ƒŽ•‘„‡‡‹‡†ˆ‘”‡–ƒŽ•ǡˆ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ƒ†ȋ†‡”••‘‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͺͷȌǤ 2.1.1 Mineralogy

Ž— •ŠƒŽ‡ …‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ •‹Ž‹…ƒ–‡ ‹‡”ƒŽ•ǡ ‘”‰ƒ‹… ƒ––‡” ȋ‡”‘‰‡Ȍǡ •—Ž’Š‹†‡• ƒ†

…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡•ȋ ƒŽ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͸Ǣ™‡‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͲǢƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤŠ‡•—Ž’Š‹†‡‹‡”ƒŽ•ǡ

ˆ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡’›”‹–‡ȋ ‡ʹȌƒ†’›””Š‘–‹–‡ȋ ‡Ȍǡƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡††—‡–‘–Š‡”‡†—…‹‰…‘†‹–‹‘•

†—”‹‰•‡†‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ƒ†ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡”‘…ǡƒ†‹•–Š‡•‘—”…‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ…‹†Ǧ’”‘†—…‹‰

…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‘…Ǥ Š‡…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡ ‹ ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡‹• ‘ˆ–‡ …ƒŽ…‹–‡ ȋƒ͵Ȍǡ ƒ†…ƒ„‡

’”‡•‡–‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ‘†—Ž‡•ǡ‰‹˜‹‰ƒ˜‡”›—‡˜‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡•‹–Š‡

”‘…ȋ™‡‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͲǢƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ‡”‘‰‡‹•‹…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›†‡…‘’‘•‡†‘”‰ƒ‹…

ƒ––‡” ˆ”‘ •‡†‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ‹• ”‡•’‘•‹„Ž‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ …Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹… „Žƒ… …‘Ž‘—”

ȋ‘—”–‡Ž‘–ǡͳͻ͹ͻȌǤ

2.1.2 Pyrite oxidation and acid neutralization

›”‹–‡…ƒ„‡‘š‹†‹œ‡†„›˜ƒ”‹‘—•‘š‹†‹œ‹‰ƒ‰‡–•ǡˆ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡‘š›‰‡ƒ†ˆ‡””‹…‹”‘

ȋ ‡^͵ΪȌǡƒ†–Š‡‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ’”‘…‡••…ƒ„‡†‡•…”‹„‡†„›ˆ‘—”‡“—ƒ–‹‘•ȋŠƒ†”ƒƬ‡”•‘ǡ ʹͲͳͲǢ‹‰‡”Ƭ–—ǡͳͻ͹ͲȌǣ

ܨ݁ܵଶሺݏሻ ൅^଻_ଶܱଶሺܽݍሻ ൅ ܪଶܱ ֖ ܨ݁^ଶା൅ ʹܱܵସଶି൅ ʹܪ^ା Equation 1 ܨ݁^ଶା൅^ଵ_ସܱଶሺܽݍሻ ൅ ܪ^ା ֖ ܨ݁^ଷା൅^ଵ_ଶܪଶܱ Equation 2 ܨ݁^ଷା൅ ͵ܪଶܱ ֖ ܨ݁ሺܱܪଷሻሺݏሻ ൅ ͵ܪ^ାଵ_ଶ Equation 3 ܨ݁ܵଶሺݏሻ ൅ ͳͶܨ݁^ଷା൅ ͺܪଶܱ ֖ ͳͷܨ݁^ଶା൅ ʹܱܵସଶି൅ ͳ͸ܪ^ାଵ_ଶ Equation 4

“—ƒ–‹‘ͳ†‡•…”‹„‡•–Š‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ’›”‹–‡„›‘š›‰‡ƒ†™ƒ–‡”ǤŠ‡’”‘†—…‡†ˆ‡””‘—•

‹”‘ȋ ‡^ʹΪȌ‹•‘–•–ƒ„Ž‡ǡƒ†‹–•‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘–‘ˆ‡””‹…‹”‘‹••Š‘™‹‡“—ƒ–‹‘ʹǤ•Ž‘‰ƒ•

–Š‡’‹•…‹”…—‡—–”ƒŽǡ–Š‡•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆˆ‡””‹…‹”‘‹•˜‡”›Ž‘™ǡƒ†‹–’”‡…‹’‹–ƒ–‡•ƒ•‹”‘

ȋ‘š›ȌŠ›†”‘š‹†‡•ǡ‹ŽŽ—•–”ƒ–‡†™‹–Š ‡ȋ͵Ȍ‹‡“—ƒ–‹‘͵ǤŠ‹•”‡’”‡•‡–•ƒ‘–Š‡”•‘—”…‡

‘ˆƒ…‹†ǡƒ†–Š‡‡–’”‘†—…–‹‘‹‡“—ƒ–‹‘•ͳǦ͵‹•Ͷ‘Ž‡•‘ˆ’”‘–‘•’‡”‘Ž‡‘ˆ’›”‹–‡Ǥ

• Ž‘‰ ƒ• ‘š›‰‡ ‹• ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ƒ† ’ ‹• …‹”…—‡—–”ƒŽǡ ‡“—ƒ–‹‘• ͳǦ͵ ƒ”‡ …‘•–ƒ–Ž›

”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–ǤŠ‡–Š‡’†”‘’•„‡Ž‘™̱Ͷǡ•‘Ž—„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆˆ‡””‹…‹”‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ƒ†–Š‡ˆ‡””‹…

͹

‹”‘•–ƒ”–•‘š‹†‹œ‹‰’›”‹–‡ȋ‡“—ƒ–‹‘ͶȌȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ“—ƒ–‹‘Ͷ”‡’”‡•‡–•

ƒ ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ’›”‹–‡ ‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ ƒ• ’ †‡…”‡ƒ•‡•ǣ ˆ‡””‹… ‹”‘ ‹‘• •’‡‡†• —’ –Š‡

‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ǤŽ•‘‘–‡–Šƒ–™Š‡–Š‡’†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡ‡“—ƒ–‹‘͵™‹ŽŽ•Š‹ˆ––‘–Š‡Ž‡ˆ–ǡƒ†–Š‹•

‡…Šƒ‹• ™‹ŽŽ ‘ Ž‘‰‡” „‡ ƒ •‘—”…‡ ‘ˆ ^ΪǤ ‡^͵Ϊ ‹ •‘Ž—–‹‘ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ‹’‘”–ƒ– ˆ‘”

–”ƒ•’‘”–‘ˆƒ…‹†ǣƒ•ƒ…‹†”‘…†”ƒ‹ƒ‰‡‡‡–•‡—–”ƒŽ•–”‡ƒ™ƒ–‡”ǡ’”‡…‹’‹–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ ‡ ȋ‘š›ȌŠ›†”‘š‹†‡•™‹ŽŽ…ƒ—•‡ƒ†‡Žƒ›‡†”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡‘ˆƒ…‹†ǤŠ‡–Š‡’†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡƒ…‹†”‡ƒ…–•

™‹–Š–Š‡”‘……ƒ—•‹‰‹…”‡ƒ•‡†™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰”ƒ–‡•ƒ†…‘…‘‹–ƒ–”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡‘ˆ”ƒ†‹‘ƒ…–‹˜‡

ƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•Ǥ

‹‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ…–‹˜‹–›…ƒ…ƒ–ƒŽ›•‡’›”‹–‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲǢƒ”„Šƒƒ”Ǧ ‘š

Ƭ‘––‡”‘•‡”ǡʹͲͳͷȌǤ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ••‡••‹‰–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‘ˆ–Š‡„‹‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽƒ…–‹˜‹–›™ƒ•‘—–•‹†‡

–Š‡•…‘’‡‘ˆ–Š‹•™‘”†—‡–‘’”ƒ…–‹…ƒŽŽ‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ

‡š–”‡‡…ƒ•‡•ǡ’›”‹–‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘…ƒ…ƒ—•‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡’˜ƒŽ—‡•ȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ

Š‡’”‡•‡…‡‘ˆ…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡•‹–Š‡”‘……ƒ„—ˆˆ‡”–Š‡’”‘†—…‡†ƒ…‹†ǡ„—––Š‡’™‹ŽŽ†”‘’

‹ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡‹•—•‡†‘”‘–”‡ƒ†‹Ž›ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘ǤƒŽ…‹–‡†‹••‘Ž—–‹‘

ƒ†…ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—…ƒ„‡†‡•…”‹„‡†™‹–Š–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰‡“—ƒ–‹‘•ȋ˜ƒ‘‘Ƭ

—ˆˆ›ǡʹͲͳͳȌǣ

ܥܽܥܱଷ֖ ܥܽ^ଶା൅ ܥܱଷଶି ܭௌ௉ൌ ͷ ൈ ͳͲ^ିଽ Equation 5 ܥܱ_ଷ^ଶି൅ ܪଷܱ^ା֖ ܪܥܱ_ଷ^ି൅ ܪଶܱ ݌ܭ௔ଶൌ ͳͲǤ͵ʹ Equation 6 ܪܥܱଷି൅ ܪଷܱ^ା֖ ܥܱଶሺܽݍሻ ൅ ʹܪଶܱ ݌ܭ௔ଵൌ ͸Ǥ͵ Equation 7 ܥܱଶሺܽݍሻ ֖ ܥܱ_ଶሺ݃ሻ ܭுൌ ͵Ǥ͵ ൈ ͳͲ^ି଻ Equation 8

‘–‡ –Šƒ– ‡“—ƒ–‹‘ ͹ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ ‹…Ž—†‹‰ –Š‡ •–‡’ ˜‹ƒ …ƒ”„‘‹… ƒ…‹† ȋʹ͵Ȍǡ „—– –Š‹•

…‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘ ™‹ŽŽ „‡ ‹‘” …‘’ƒ”‡† –‘ †‹••‘Ž˜‡† ʹǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‡“—ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ –Š—•

•‹’Ž‹ˆ‹‡†ȋ˜ƒ‘‘Ƭ—ˆˆ›ǡʹͲͳͳȌǤ

‹Ž‹…ƒ–‡‹‡”ƒŽ•ǡŽ‹‡—•…‘˜‹–‡ƒ†“—ƒ”–œǡƒ”‡‘”‡•–ƒ„Ž‡ƒ†™‹ŽŽ†‡‰”ƒ†‡˜‡”›•Ž‘™Ž›

—Ž‡••ƒ‰‰”‡••‹˜‡™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰…‘†‹–‹‘•ȋ‹Ǥ‡ǤǡŽ‘™‡”’Ȍ’”‡˜ƒ‹Žȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ

‹Ž‹…ƒ–‡ ™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹‰ ™‹ŽŽ „—ˆˆ‡” –Š‡ ƒ…‹†ǡ „—– –Š‹• ’”‘…‡•• ‹• ‡š–”‡‡Ž› •Ž‘™ ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡ –‘

‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘„›ˆ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡…ƒŽ…‹–‡ǡƒ†ƒ”‡ƒ•™‹–Šƒ‹Ž›•‹Ž‹…ƒ–‡”‘…•ƒ”‡•—•…‡’–‹„Ž‡

ˆ‘”ƒ…‹†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘ˆ”‘’›”‹–‡‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†ƒŽ•‘–‘ƒ…‹†”ƒ‹ȋ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ

ͺ

˜‡”›‹’‘”–ƒ–’”‘’‡”–›‘ˆ‡š…ƒ˜ƒ–‡†”‘…ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•‹•–Š‡ƒ…‹†‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽȋȌ …‘’ƒ”‡†–‘–Š‡ȋƒ…‹†Ȍ‡—–”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘’‘–‡–‹ƒŽȋȌǡ•‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘ͻǤŠ‡‘ˆƒ”‘…‹•

‡•–‹ƒ–‡†„›ƒ••—‹‰–Šƒ–ƒŽŽ‹–Š‡”‘……‘‡•ˆ”‘•—Ž’Š‹†‡•„‡Šƒ˜‹‰Ž‹‡’›”‹–‡ǡ

ƒ† –Š‡ ‹• ‡•–‹ƒ–‡† ˆ”‘ –Š‡ …‘–‡– ‘ˆ …ƒ”„‘ƒ–‡•ǡ ƒ••—‹‰ –Š‡•‡ „‡Šƒ˜‡ Ž‹‡

…ƒŽ…‹–‡ȋƒ™”‡…‡Ƭƒ‰ǡͳͻͻ͸Ǣƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ

Equation 9

ˆ–Š‹•”ƒ–‹‘‹•δͳǡ–Š‡”‘…™‹ŽŽ—•—ƒŽŽ›„‡ƒ…‹†’”‘†—…‹‰ǡ™Š‹Ž‡‹ˆ‹–‹•ƒ„‘˜‡͵‹–‹•…Žƒ••‹ˆ‹‡†

ƒ•‡—–”ƒŽ‹œ‹‰ȋƒ„•–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ—‡–‘—…‡”–ƒ‹–‹‡•‹–Š‡ƒ••—’–‹‘•ˆ‘”‡•–‹ƒ–‹‰

•—Ž’Š‹†‡ƒ†…ƒŽ…‹–‡…‘–‡–ǡ”‘…•Šƒ˜‹‰ƒ”ƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡ͳƒ†͵ˆƒŽŽ‹–‘–Š‡—…‡”–ƒ‹–›

œ‘‡™Š‡”‡‘‡…ƒ‘–„‡…‡”–ƒ‹–Šƒ––Š‡”‘…‹•‘–ƒ…‹†’”‘†—…‹‰Ǥ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ‡˜‡

™‹–Š‘—–ƒ’†”‘’–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡Ž‡ƒ…Š‹‰ǡ”ƒ†‹‘—…Ž‹†‡•ƒ†•–ƒ„Ž‡‡Ž‡‡–•‹…‘”’‘”ƒ–‡†

‹–Š‡’›”‹–‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•…ƒ„‡”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡††—”‹‰‘š‹†ƒ–‹‘ǡ‘”…‘–ƒ‹ƒ–•…ƒ„‡”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡†

ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”‹‡”ƒŽ•ƒ†ˆ”‘‘”‰ƒ‹…ƒ––‡”‹–Š‡”‘…ǡ‰‹˜‹‰neutral rock drainage ȋȌȋŽŽ‘™ƒ›ǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ’’‡Ž‘Ƭ‘•–ƒǡʹͲͳͲǢ‹‡”‡•†‡ƒƒǡͳͻͻͳȌǤ

‹‰—”‡͵ǣ‡ƒ–Š‡”‡†ƒŽ—•ŠƒŽ‡Ǥ

ܰ݁ݑݐݎ݈ܽ݅ݖܽݐ݅݋݊݌݋ݐ݁݊ݐ݈݅ܽ

ܣ݂ܿ݅݀݅݅ܿܽݐ݅݋݊݌݋ݐ݁݊ݐ݈݅ܽ