WaterScience
ScienceDirect
WaterScience32(2018)318–337
journalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/wsj
Research Article
A DPSIR-analysis of water uses and related water quality issues in the Colombian Alto and Medio Dagua Community Council
Sirak Robele Gari
a,c,f,∗, Cesar E. Ortiz Guerrero
e, Bryann A-Uribe
e, John D. Icely
c,d, Alice Newton
b,caFUECA,OficinaErasmusMundus,AularioNorte,CampusdePuertoReal,PuertoReal11519,Cadiz,Spain
bNILU-IMPEC,Box100,2027Kjeller,Norway
cCIMA-FCT,CampusdeGambelas,UniversidadedoAlgarve,8005-139Faro,Portugal
dSagremarisco,Apt21,8650-999ViladoBispo,Portugal
eFacultaddeEstudiosAmbientalesyRurales,PontificiaUniversidadJaveriana,Bogota,Colombia
fEthiopianInstituteofWaterResources,AkakiCampus,AddisAbabaUniversity,Ethiopia Received3May2017;receivedinrevisedform17May2018;accepted10June2018
Availableonline9July2018
Abstract
AportionofColombia’swaterresourcesislocatedonthePacificcoastwithintheterritoryoftheCommunityCouncilofAltoand MedioDagua(CC-AMDA).Thoughaharmoniousbalancebetweenthecommunities’subsistentactivitiesandnaturewasmaintained forcenturies,theappearanceofmodernmodesofresourceextractionhasnegativelyaffectedtheenvironment,especiallythewater resources.TheDriver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response(DPSIR)frameworkwasusedtoanalyzewaterqualityproblemswithin thiscommunitycouncil.TheDPSIRanalysisrevealedthatagriculture,mining,loggingandinfrastructuredevelopmentconstitute importantsectoraldriverswithsomecontributionfromtourismandfisheries.Pressuresincludedinputsoforganicmatter,sediment, nutrientsand chemicalcontaminantstothe Daguariver,andtotheBayofBuenaventura.TheseproducedcorrespondingState changesinthewaterbodies.Impactsonhumanwelfarewerepoorpublichealth,reducedfoodandwatersecurity,economicloss andsomedisplacement.SocietalResponsesincludedpublicprotestsandcampaigns,legalactionsandpolicychangesforimproved governance.Asafuturepolicyoption,theformationofcommunity-basedwaterresourcesmanagementisrecommended.Though DPSIRwasabletolinkcause-effectrelations,furtherempiricalresearchonthesewaterbodiesisnecessarytofillinexistinggaps inthedataset,particularlyforpublichealththreateningcontaminants.
©2018NationalWaterResearchCenter.Productionandhostingby ElsevierB.V.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCC BY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Keywords:AltoandMedioDagua;Colombia;Community-basedwaterresourcesmanagement;DPSIR;Social–Ecologicalsystems
∗Correspondingauthorat:EthiopianInstituteofWaterResources(EIWR),AkakiCampus,AddisAbabaUniversity,AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.
E-mailaddresses:[email protected],[email protected](S.R.Gari),[email protected](C.E.OrtizGuerrero),[email protected] (B.A-Uribe),[email protected](J.D.Icely),[email protected](A.Newton).
PeerreviewunderresponsibilityofNationalWaterResearchCenter.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2018.06.001
1110-4929/©2018NationalWaterResearchCenter.ProductionandhostingbyElsevierB.V.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCC BY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Colombia has one of the richest fresh water resources in the world with seven hydrographic areas, with the Pacific contributingthehighestdischargeof waterperarea,at0.124m3s−1km2,followedbytheAmazonaswith 0.081m3s−1km2(Sánchezetal.,2010);althoughtheformerhasamuchlowerrateofdischarge(9.629m3s−1)com- paredtothelatter(27,830m3s−1).Insummary,thegreatestoverallcontributiontothecountry’ssurfacewaterresources is27.83%,19.23%and9.63%fromtheAmazonas,OrinocoandPacifichydrographicareas,respectively(Sánchezetal., 2010).Colombiahassixteen hydro-geologicalareascomposedofvariouslithologicalmaterialscontainingvarying reservesofgroundwaterthatcoverabout74%ofthecountry’ssurfacearea(Rodriguezetal.,2010).
Withregardtothefreshwaterresources,36%ofthesurfacewaterisfromtheAmareles-Daguahydrographiczone, and8%ofthenationalgroundwaterreserveiswithintheChocó-Pacifichydrogeologicalarea.ThePacificcoastal waters,ofwhichtheBayofBuenaventuraformsapart,alsoconstitutepartoftheterritory’shydrologicalwealth.The managementofpartofthesewaterresourcesismainlytheresponsibilityoftheAfro-ColombianCommunityCouncil ofAltoandMedioDagua(CC-AMDA).TheAfro-ColombiansofCC-AMDAaredescendantsofAfricans,transported toColombiaduringthecolonialperiod.TheyweresettledintheColombianpartoftheChocóbiogeographicregion, intheprovinceofValledelCauca,theruralregionofthemunicipalityofBuenaventura,alongthePacificcoast.This CommunityCouncilcombinestheculturesandtraditionsofitsAfricanancestrywiththatofLatinAmerica.Themain economicactivitiesareagriculture,woodextraction,artisanalminingandtherecentlyintroducedindustrialmining, artisanalfishingandtourism.Theseeconomicactivitiesaswellasrecentinfrastructuredevelopments,suchasroad construction,areaffectingthewaterqualityoftheDaguariverandconsequentlythePacificcoastalwaters,includingthe BayofBuenaventura(Avenda˜no-Uribeetal.,2013).Inordertomanagethewaterquality,itisfirstnecessarytoidentify thecausesandconsequencesofitsdeterioration.Oncetheexistingwatermanagementmeasureshavebeenevaluated, itmaybenecessarytoeitherstrengthenthemorrecommendanewpolicydirectionthatwouldenableimprovementsto thewaterquality.Forthisstudy,amodifiedDriver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response(DPSIR)frameworkwasusedto analyzethewaterusesandassociatedwaterqualityissues(Elliottetal.,2017).TheresearchprojectCommunity-based ManagementofEnvironmentalChallengesinLatinAmerica(COMET-LA)focussedoncommunitybasedmodelsas aresponsetoenvironmentalchallengesinLatinAmericaandincludedtheCC-AMDAasastudysite.Thechoicewas madebasedonthereviewofsecondarysourcesandempiricaldatafromthefield,andfromdiscussionswithmembers oftheCommunity.
Councilandotherstakeholders(Avenda˜no-Uribeetal.,2013).ThemainapproachoftheprojectwastouseOstrom’s Social–EcologicalSystemsFramework(SESF)(Delgado-Serranoetal.,2015,2016,2017a).Inthepresentstudy,the DPSIRapproachwasfollowedtoanalyzethecause-effectrelationshipofenvironmentaldysfunction.Thissupplies pertinentpolicyrecommendations,tocreateanappropriatecommunitybasedmanagementmodel.
1.1. Aimandobjectives
The aimof thispaper istodefineappropriatepolicy responsesthatenable theplanningandimplementationof managementalternativesforsustainableuseofwaterresourcesbytheCC-AMDA.Thespecificobjectivesconsistof identificationandanalysisof:(i)thevarioussocio-economicdriversleadingtowaterqualitydeterioration;(ii)pressures relatedtotheidentifieddrivers;(iii)impactsonhumansresultingfromstatechange;(iv)responsestakentodate.
1.2. Researchquestion
ThenaturalresourcesofCC-AMDAhavebeenprovidingecosystemservicestolocalcommunitiesforcenturies, enablingaharmoniousbalancebetweenhumansandtheirsurroundingenvironment.However,therecentappearance ofmodernmodesofnaturalresourcesextractionsuchasmechanizedgoldmining,useofagrochemicals,logging(to satisfytimber demandfrom cities),andconstructionof newinfrastructurehaveproducednegativeimpacts onthe environment,andmostimportantlyonthewaterresources(Aguirreetal.,2017).
Sotheresearchquestionsthatareaddressedinthispaperare:
• WhyhasthewaterqualityofaquaticresourcesinCC-AMDAdeteriorated?
Fig.1.MapofCC-AMDA(redrawnbyFinn,2015;NILU&byMdKurshid,2017;UCA).
• Whataretheeconomicdriversandconsequentpressuresthathavecontributedtothedeteriorationofwaterquality?
• Howdoesthewaterqualitydeteriorationimpactthecommunity?
• Howcanthewaterqualitybeimproved?
2. Methods
2.1. Studyarea/systemdefinition
Social–Ecologicalsystems(SESs)aredefinedascomplexsystemsintegratedwithsocialandecologicalsubsystems, inwhichdiverseorganizedhumanandecologicalnodespermanentlyinteract(Berkesetal.,2003;Janssenetal.,2006;
Becker,2011).Inthecontextofthisstudy,TheCC-AMDAispartofaSocial-Ecologicalsystemwheretheboundaries aredeterminedbythedistancetowhichlocalinhabitantswilltraveltousetheirnatural resources,includingwater (Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).
CC-AMDAislocatedintheupperandmiddlebasinofthe DaguaRiverinthe ruralpartofthemunicipalityof Buenaventura,intheprovinceofValledelCauca,theChocóbiogeographicregionofColombia(Fig.1).TheDagua RiverBasinisthemostimportantwatersourcefortheecosysteminValledelCauca(Aguirreetal.,2017).CC-AMDA hassixcommunitiesoccupyinganareaof9423ha.Twoofthesecommunities,ZaragozaandLaDelfinaarethefocus ofthisstudy.Zaragozaconsistsof106householdsandatotalpopulationof495inhabitants,andLaDelfinahas99
Fig.2.Casestudydesign;basedonYin(2009).
householdsandatotalpopulationof395inhabitants.Theeconomicactivitiesinthiscommunitycouncilrangefrom agriculturethroughfishingtomining.
GeologicallytheChocó-Pacifichydrogeologicareaiscomposedoftransitionalandfluvialsedimentsofthequa- ternaryperiodlocatedatthebanksoftheRiversAtrato,BaudoandSanJuan,andcoversanareaof3.2millionkm2 (Rodriguezetal.,2010).Thesesedimentaryrocksincludelimestones,siltstones,mudstonesandsandstones.Thesame sourcefurtherexplainsthattheaquifersareunconfined,sedimentaryformationwithadepthof800m,havingatotal reserveof about 439,000Mm3 of water.Thereisanorth-northeast depressioninthehydrogeologic area,possibly influencingthedirectionofwaterflow.
Apartfromtheaquifers,thewaterresourcesinCC-AMDAincluderain,springsandtributariesforsurfacedrainage.
DaguaRiveristhemostimportantsurfacewaterresourceforthisCommunityCouncil.Theriver,fromitssourcein theAndeanhighlandsoftheValledelCaucaprovincetoitsmouthinthePacificocean(CVC,2007),coversadrainage basinof1700km2andproducesanannualdischargeof3970Mm3(RestrepoandKjerfve,2000).Further,theaquatic resourcesincludemorethan15tributaries(Álvarezetal.,2010).TheBayofBuenaventuraisincludedinthisstudyas itisdirectlyconnectedwiththeDaguariver,thereby,constitutinganimportantsystemboundary.
Though data on the amount of ground water used in CC-AMDA is not available, about 412Mm3 of ground water is used per year inthe provinceof Valledel Cauca; out of which 383.9Mm3 (93.17%) is for agriculture, 19.61Mm3(4.75%)forindustryand8.6Mm3(2.08%)fordomesticpurposes(Rodriguezetal.,2010).Thesefigures couldpotentiallyprovideanindicationoftheuseofgroundwaterbytheruralcommunitiesofCC-AMDA.
2.2. DPSIR
TheDPSIRframeworkhasevolvedfromStress-Response(S R)frameworksince1979(FriendandRapport,1991) throughPressure-State-Response(P-S-R)(OECD,1993)toDPSIRframework(EEA,1995).Theframeworkhasbeen extensivelyused foranalyzingenvironmentalproblemsemanating fromhumanactivities(e.g.OECD, 1993;EEA, 1995;BidoneandLacerda,2003;Elliott,2002;Karageorgisetal.,2006;Borjaetal.,2006;HaaseandNuissi,2007;
Bell,2012;Kagalouetal., 2012).Theframeworkintegratesnatural,socialandeconomicinformation(Bidoneand Lacerda,2003)andfacilitatestheintegrationofconservationfunctionsandsocio-economicdevelopment(Caeiroetal., 2004).Italsohelpstoidentifywhatpolicydirectiontofollowthatenhancesthesustainableutilizationandappropriate managementofwaterresources.Thetoolhasalsobeencriticizedforitssimplisticuni-directionality,amongothers.
Nevertheless,thepresentstudyhasattemptedtorectifysomeofitsshortcomingssuchasuni-directionalitybyfollowing amultipleDPSIRcycleapproachrecentlysuggestedbyElliottetal.,(2017).Inlinewithanadaptivenatureofthe framework it is still in evolution (Elliott etal., 2017).Therefore, DPSIR, inits present form andusing multiple DPSIR cycles,canbeused as ananalyticalframework forlinking datafromthe CC-AMDAwiththeproposition thatanthropogenicactivitieshavecontributedtothedeteriorationofwaterqualityinCC-AMDA.Fig.2showsthat theUnitofAnalysis(UoA)isthehuman-ecosysteminteractionexpressedastheDriver(D).Theotherelementsof DPSIR(Pressure,Statechange,ImpactandResponse)areconsideredsubunitsoftheanalysis(SUoA)astheyare consequencesofthe Driverinthechain,therebyenhancingtheinsightintothecasestudy(Yin,2009).Thebigger roundedrectanglerepresentsthecasestudy,whereasthedashedlinerepresentstheindistinctboundarybetweenthe
Fig.3.ConceptualrepresentationofmultipleDPSIRcycles;basedonAtkinsetal.(2011)andSmithetal.(2014).D1–D5refertodrivers1–5.
P1–P2refertopressures1–5.Andtherestofthecategoriesdothesame.
caseanditscontext.Thecaseisthewaterqualityissueandthecontextisthesocio-economic–ecologicalinteractions associatedwithwateruse.“D”and“R”arerepresentedbybiggercirclestoindicatetheirdirectconnectionwiththe tworesearchquestions.“D”answerswhythewaterqualityofthestudiedwaterbodieshasdeterioratedandthe“R”
answershowitcanbeimproved.
Thevarietyof informationgatheredfrom documents,interviews,observations andsurveydatarelatedtowater qualityissuewereanalyzedusingDPSIR.IngeneraltheEEA(2003)definitionofDPSIRisfollowed.However,in agreementwiththesuggestionsfrompreviousworks(e.g.ELME,2007;Cooper,2012;Elliottetal.,2017)theimpact refersonlytohumanwelfare,andtheimpactontheenvironmenthasbeenmovedtotheStatecategory.Duetothe presenceofmultipledrivers,multipleDPSIRcycleswereused(Fig.3).Thisapproachhelpsdescribeandquantify(if sufficientmeansareavailable)interactionsamongmultipledriversandpressures(dashedarrows).
Additionally,thisapproachhelpsovercometheuni-directionalityoftheDPSIRanalysisbyshowingtheinteractions betweencategories.Furthermore,itfacilitatestheadoptionofanintegratedresponse(Rint.),directedatoneormore categoriesoftheDPSIRframework,whichareindicatedbyasinglearroweach.
2.3. Literaturestudy
Theinformationusedfor identifyingthe drivers,pressures,state change,impactandpreviousresponses inthis studyislargelysecondarydatafromthenationalhydrologyinstitute(IDEAM)andtheregionalenvironmentauthority (CVC).DeliverablesoftheCOMET-LAprojectandotherliterarysourceswerealsoused.Generallyawidevarietyof publishedandgreyliteraturesuppliedinformationforthecasestudy(Table1).Exceptforlegaldocumentsbelongingto thegovernmentsuchasLaws(ley)andDecrees(decreto)promulgatedbythePresidenciadelaRepublica(1974–2010;
PresidenciadelaRepublicadeColombia,2008,2010),whichdatebacktothe1970s,thedatausedforthisstudywere publishedbetween1990and2017.
Table1
Sourcesofinformation.
Sourceof information
Drivers:
Econmicsectors andactivities
Pressures State Impactsonhuman welfare
Response Legal/policy/
resource management issues
Social, economic&
naturalresource issues
Books X X X X X
CVCdocs. X X X
Com.Councildocs. X X X X
Deliverables X X X
Governmentdocs. X
IDEAMdocs. X X X X X
Interviews X X X X
Journals X X X X
Newspapers X X X
Surveydata X X X X X
Observations X X X X
2.4. Interview,observationandsurvey
Asemistructured,focusedinterviewconsistingof23openendedquestionswasconductedina2-dayfieldtriptothe communitiesinJuly2013.Inlinewithessentiallyaqualitativeresearchmethod,interviewswereconductedinZaragoza todatasaturationpointwherebynoadditionalinformationrelatedtothewaterqualityissuewasobtained.Triangulated withobservations,literaturestudyandsurveys,thesaturationpointinZaragozawas8householdsandthisservedas abasistodeterminethesamplesizeofintervieweesinLaDelfina,whichhascloselycomparabledemographicand economicsituation.Buttobeonthesafeside,2moreinterviewswereincludedinbothvillagesbeyondthesaturation point.Thosewhoareactivelyinvolvingnow,andhadactivelyinvolvedinthepastintheproductivesystem,andhad livedintheareaformorethanfiveyearswereincluded intheinterview.Thosewhoareneither involvingnorhad involvedintheproductivesystemduetoageandotherreasons,aswellasthoseresidinginthevillagesforlessthan fiveyearswerenotincluded.Theinformantswerebriefedontheaimsofthestudyandtheirconsentwassoughtand obtained.Tenhouseholdrepresentativeswereinterviewedfromeachvillagerepresentingabout10%ofthehouseholds inthevillage.Whereastheindividualhouseholdswereselectedrandomly,thegeneralstrategywastocovertheentire villageandtoachieveabroadrepresentationintermsofsex,ageandoccupation.Therewasagoodgenderballance wheremostoftherespondentsundertheageof60(Table2),indicatingthatallofthemwereproductivecitizens.The proportionofuneducatedcommunitymembersishigherinbothvillages.Thequestionsstartedwiththerespondent’s economicactivities(i.e.Drivers)andthencoveredwaterresources,wateruseandcost,waterqualityandsanitation, andhealthissues.Duringthevisits,observationswerealsomadeoffacilitiesforrainwaterharvesting,waterstorage andsanitaryconditions,aswellastheeconomicactivitiesinthevillages.
Asurveywasalsoconductedwiththeparticipantsofthestakeholders’forumorganizedbytheCOMET-LAproject inBuenaventura(July2013).Itcomprisedofrepresentativesof communityandpublic organizations’,researchers, differentprofessionalsandstudents.Priortothesurvey,aletterbriefingtheobjectivesofthesurveyandrequesting collaboration was distributed to the participants. With their full consent 23 people were questioned. The gender proportionoftherespondentswasfifteenmalestoeightfemales.TheanalysismadewasforthewholeofCC-AMDA.
TheanalysiswascompletedforCC-AMDA,representedbythetwovillagesofZaragozaandLaDelfina.Fromthe literaturestudy(CC-AMDA,2012a,b)andsurveyresponses,itwasestablishedthattheotherfourvillagesofCC-AMDA weresimilarforsocial,cultural,economicandmanagementaspects.
3. Results
3.1. Drivers
AccordingtotheinterviewsconductedinLaDelfinaandZaragoza,asurveymadeamongthestakeholders’forum participantsinBuenaventura,as wellas previousworks (Avenda˜no-Uribeetal.,2013;Farah-Quijanoetal., 2012;
Table2
Compositionofrespondents.
Communitycouncil AMDA
Village LaDelfina Zaragoza Total(%)
Sex Male 4 40% 5 50% 45
Female 6 60% 5 50% 55
Agestructure 18–30 4 40% 3 30% 35
31–40 – – 2 20% 10
41–50 3 30% 3 30% 30
51–60 2 20% 2 20% 20
61–70 2 20% – – 10
Education None 2 20% 2 20% 20
Primary 4 40% 5 50% 45
Secondary 2 20% 0 0% 10
College 2 20% 3 30% 25
Occupation Farmer 1 10% – – 5
Smallscaletrader 2 20% 0 – 10
Miner – – – – –
Student 3 30% 1 10% 20
Mixed(Farmer/Miner) 2 20% 5 50% 35
Nowork 2 20% 3 30% 25
Other – – 1 10% 5
CC-AMDA,2012b;Ortiz-Guerreroetal.,2014),themainsocio-economicdriversidentifiedinthefocusedSESof CC-AMDAareagriculture,logging,goldmining,fisheries,infrastructuredevelopmentandtourism.
Agricultureis generallythe mostimportant economic sector.Butvillages within the samecouncil mayattach differentsignificancetodifferentsectors.Forexample,thevillageofZaragozaattachesmoreimportancetomining thanthevillageofLaDelfina(Interviews,2013).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatacommunityengagesinmultiple economicactivitiesatdifferentseasonssothataclearcategorizationofindividualswithspecificoccupationsbecomes difficult.
Furthermore,thereareinteractionsamongsocio-economicdrivers.Forexample,infrastructuredevelopmentfacil- itatesgrowthintourismandtimberextractionactivities.Atthesametime,itincreasesroadtransportationwiththe consequentincreaseinairandwaterpollution.Paradoxically,italsofacilitatescommunicationamongsocialgroups andencouragescollectiveactionforimprovingsocialandenvironmentalconditions.
3.1.1. Agriculture
Approximately167familiesinCC-AMDAareinvolvedinagriculture,growingover25typesoffruitsandvegetables (Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).Subsistentagricultureinthecommunitycouncilispracticedatthreelevels:familyplots, farmplotsandhills(CC-AMDA,2012b).Fruitsandvegetablesare cultivatedon familyplotsandthereare small shedsforthejuvenilechickenandpigs,andtanksforjuvenilefish.Farmplotsarepoly-croppingfieldscombining agro-forestry,cropsandmedicinalplants,aswellasmonoculturefarmscultivatingdifferenttypesoffruitsandtubers.
ThesefarmlandswereoriginallyalongthebanksofDagua,butduetothepressurefrommechanizedminingandroad construction,theyhavehadtomovetohighergrounds(CC-AMDA,2012b).Thehillplotsareusedforpoly-cropping andagro-forestry,andarealsoinhabitedbywildanimals.Eightypercentofthefarmplotsconsistofpoly-cropping farming,withsizesrangingfromlessthanonetofivehectares,whereasthehillyareashave43%ofthelandforhunting, woodextraction,reedsandmedicinalplants(CC-AMDA,2012b).
3.1.2. Mining
Thoughgoldmininghasbeenpracticedatanartisanallevelsincepre-Colombiantimes,theintroductionofmech- anizedminingsince2009representsarecentandimportantdriverofenvironmentalchange.Accordingtothereport bytheColombianminers’association,Colombiaproducedabout34,300kgofgoldin2008(WRM,2011).Similar figureshavebeenreportedbyWGA(2011)showingthattheColombiangoldproductionincreasedfrom21toninthe
year2000to27tonin2009,withanestimateforafurtherincreaseto32tonin2010.About50%ofthecountry´sgold isproducedby200,000small-scaleminers(Siegel,2011).
The Dagua riverisknown as acentre for small scalegoldmining. In CC-AMDA,about 10% of the working populationusesthreedaysormoreperweekforminingactivities,butinthelastfewyears’immigrationofoutsiders tothecommunity,especiallytoZaragoza,hasincreasedthenumberofpeopleinvolvedingoldminingto26%(CC- AMDA,2012b).AccordingtoMorales(2012),1207haoflandwasdesignatedinCC-AMDAformining.Furthermore, since2009themechanizedminingoccurredalongtheDaguariver,culminatingwith234excavatorsand50dredging machineswithinastretchofonly6km,andaccompaniedbyanincreaseinthenumberofinhabitantsfrom2100to 4800(Lassoetal.,2011).Indeed,entrepreneursfromcitieslikeCali,MedellinandBogotáwereattractedtothisgold rushalongtheDaguariverincreasingthepopulationfroma100localfamiliesto10,000fortunehunters(WRM,2011).
Activitiesincludediggingsedimentfromtheriverbedandbanks,resuspendingsedimentandusingsubstancessuch asmercuryandcyanideforgoldextraction.
3.1.3. Logging
TheillegaltradeoftimberinCC-AMDAiscausedbythecurrentmarketdemandforconstructionandhousehold needs,coupledwithhaving onlyafeweconomicalternatives(CC-AMDA,2012b).ThisisdespitetheCommunity Council´sformalcontrolovertheterritoryandtimberextraction.
3.1.4. Tourism
Tourismisanemergentactivity,whichhasnotyetdevelopedtoasignificantlevel.InCC-AMDAabout23families wereengagedinthisactivity(Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).Itconsistedofsalesoftraditionalproductslikecoconutand sugar-canedrink,orprovisionofservicessuchasfoodsales,assistanceintripsforbathing,assistanceforaccessto sitetoilets,parkingandcarwash(CC-AMDA,2012b).
3.1.5. Infrastructuredevelopment
Infrastructuredevelopmentintheregionisgrowing,especiallybecauselaw1617/2013hashighlightedBuenaventura as aspecial industrial portsector,biodiverseandeco-touristicdistrict. Theconstructionof the two-wayasphalted highwayfromSantiagodeCalitoBuenaventurahasresultedinarangeofpressuresontheDaguariverincludingthe depositionofrubbleandsediment,resultinginobservableimpactsontheecosystem.Furtherpressureshaveresulted fromtheriseinpopulationfromtheincreaseinthenumbersofconstructionworkers.
Thereisalsoaforthcomingprojectfortheconstructionofanoilpipelinethatwillcrossthecollectiveterritories.
Theoilsupplyisexpectedtomeettheneedsoftheportarea,buttheprocessofconstructionofthismacro-projectwill affectCC-AMDA(Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).Thereareplansfortheprogressiveexpansionoftheportinfrastructure ofBuenaventurawhichwillalsoaffecttheriversthatrunthroughCommunityCouncils.TheportofBuenaventurais thelargestonthePacificcoastofColombiaandimportantfortradewithAsia.
3.1.6. Fisheries
Fishingisartisanalbasedonlinefishingwithhooksoronnets(CC-AMDA,2012b).Althoughfishingisessentially for subsistence,it isoneofthe mostimportant proteinsourcesfor the community(Avenda˜no-Uribeetal., 2013), sothat foodsecuritydependsonthisactivity.Freshwaterspeciessuch asAgnostomousmonticola,BryconMeeki, PseudocurimatalineopunctataarefishedalongthedifferentpartsoftheriverandChaetostomamarginatumarefished alongthecoast(Lassoetal.,2011).Theactivityinvolvestheuseofnetforcatchingthefish.
3.2. Pressures
TheColombianchemicalrecord(ONUDI-MADS,2012)revealsthatintheyear2007;219typesofpesticidesand28 typesoffertilizerswereproducedandimportedintoColombiaconstituting28.4%and3.6%ofthetotalchemicalsinthe countryrespectively.Further,282,433tonofpesticidesand20,766,959tonoffertilizerswereused(ONUDI-MADS, 2012).FertilizerconsumptioninColombiais441.71kg/ha(FAO,2010).
The coastal andmarine watersmonitoring reportby INVEMAR (2005) statedthat organo-chlorine pesticides werenotused foragriculturealongtheChocóPacific coastbetween2001–2005.Nonetheless,despitetheabsence ofhistoricalrecordsaboutthesechemicals,monitoringdonebyINVEMAR(2005)revealedtheirpresenceatafew
Table3
WaterqualitystatusofDaguariverandthebayofBuenaventurafornon-consumptiveuses.
Criterion Daguariver BayofBuenaventura Standard
1◦contact 2◦contact
Bacterial contamination (TC,FC)
8000–9100 >1000MPN/100ml
(TC)
TC<1000 TC<5000 MPN/100ml(TC)
(INVEMAR,2012)
>200MPN/100ml (FC)(GLA,2008)
FC<200(national standard)
FC<1000(national standard)
Organic contamination
Low=83% Nodata Organiccontaminationindex0.2–0.4=low
Medium=15% >0.4to0.6=medium
High=2%(GLA, 2012a)
>0.6to0.8=high(nationalstandard) Nutrient
contamination
1.6–2.05mg/lDIN Nodata >0.02mg/lP:eutrophic(nationalstandard) 0.28mg/lPO4
(INVEMAR,2012)
Nstandardunavailable Mercury
contamination
<0.2ppm(sediment) (Álvarez,2010)
0.01–0.018ppm (watercolumn)
0.5mg/kg(fishingproducts)(nationalstandard) 0–0.198ppm(algae)
(OspinaandPe˜na, 2004)
Algalandsediment standardsunavailable 1.36ppm(bivalves)
(Alvarez,2013a)
0.4ppm(sediment) (Álvarez,2010)
locations,whichwasattributedtothereleaseofthechemicalstocombatmalaria,andbyloggerstocontrolinsects ratherthanbyfarmers.Iftheuseof agrochemicalsislowinthe Chocóregioningeneral,itsuseinCC-AMDAis probablylower.
However,inrecentyears,differenttypesofagrochemicalsarebeingusedintheValledelCauca,includingnitroge- nousandphosphatefertilizers,persistentandmobileherbicides andpesticidescontaining amides,carbamatesand diuron(Páez,2011).DataontheamountofagrochemicalsusedinCC-AMDAisunknown.Thereisalsofumigation ofillicitcropsreleasingsubstantialconcentrationsofGlyphosateintotheairandultimatelyintotheaquaticecosystem (Sánchez-GarzoliandSchafer,2012).Associatedwithartisanalgoldminingisthe useofMercury.Foreachgram ofgoldmined,13–14gofmercuryisused(Restrepo,2015)releasingintotheenvironmentmuchmorequantityof mercurythanthegoldproduced.
In2005,Daguariver,releasedpollutedwaterequivalentto3.6tonofbiologicaloxygendemand(BOD),0.73tonof totalnitrogen(TN),0.41tonoftotalphosphorus(TP),andabout36tonofsuspendedsolids(SS)perdaytothePacific coast(INVEMAR,2005).INVEMAR(2012)reportedanincreaseinthereleaseoftheabovesubstancesbetween2005 and2012.Forexample,in2011thereleasesofpollutedwater(asBOD),dissolvedinorganicnitrogen(DIN),phosphate andSSwere14.5ton,8.71ton,3.01tonand131.5tonperdayrespectively.Thiscanbeattributedtoanincreasein economicactivitiessuchas agriculture(nutrientrelease),goldminingandlogging(sedimentrelease),tourismand populationincrease(domesticwasterelease).INVEMAR(2012)reportedthatduetominingactivities,thecontribution ofsuspendedsolidsfromtheDaguariverwashigherthanhadbeenrecordedhistorically.Wastewaterwasidentified asthepriorityhealthprobleminthecommunity,associatedwithepidemicsofwaterbornediseases(WBD).
3.3. State
Table3relatesthevaluesforwaterqualityfromtheDaguariverandtheBayofBuenaventurawiththestandards fornon-domesticusesofwater.
a Daguariver
WaterqualitymonitoringdonebytheCVConDaguariverbetween2006and2012(Álvarez,2006;Alvarez,2007;
CVC,2007;GLA,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012a),atsixmonitoringstationswithabiannualsamplingfrequency(72 samplesintotal),showedvaluesofdrinkingwaterof64%,33%and3%forgood,mediumandlowquality,respectively.
Whilst55%ofthewaterforagriculturecouldbeusedforthemajorityofthecrops,only45%wassuitableforcrops requiringhighqualitywater.Withrespecttoorganiccontamination,83%,15%and2%showedvaluesoflow,medium andhighcontamination,respectively.Ontheotherhand,themonitoringoftheDaguariverreportedbyINVEMAR (2012)between2001and2012,revealedthattotalcoliform(TC)concentrationexceededthestandard(forsecondary contact)of5000MPN/100mlbothduringrainyanddryseasons.Historically,thecoliformconcentrationofthisriver hasbeenthehighestinValledelCaucawithanaverageTCconcentrationof9100MPN/100mlinthewetseasonand 8000MPN/100mlinthedryseason(INVEMAR,2012).Thisisinlinewiththeincreasingpopulationthatthemining activityattractedalongtheriverstherebyincreasingthevolumeofdomesticwaste.Consequently,theDaguariverdoes notmeetsomeofthenationalstandardsstipulatedbydecree1594/1984.Forexample,withthecurrentloadofTC, thewaterqualityisunsuitableforbothprimary(swimming)andsecondary(boating)contacts,andthewaterneeds appropriatetreatmentforhumanconsumptionandirrigation.
With respect to nutrients, INVEMAR(2012) reported that the riverhad adissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrationof2.05mg/linthewetseasonof2012,and1.6mg/linthedryseasonof2011.Thephosphateconcentration was0.28mg/lduringtherainyseason.Butthispatternisnotalwaysapparentatallstations,with,forexample,aDIN concentrationsrangingbetween1.5mg/land2mg/linthedryseasonandalowervalueof1mg/linthewetseason (INVEMAR,2012).Generally,themonitoringdonebythesameinstitutionbetween2001and2012recordedmeanDIN concentrationsrangingbetween1.3mg/land1.5mg/l.Thisindicatesthattheriverisamongtheimportantcontributors ofnutrients(N,P)tothecoastalareasowingtothedirectdischargeofuntreateddomesticwaste.
TheDaguariverhasbeencontaminatedbymining,resultinginmodificationstothewaterflow,siltationoftemporary puddlesanddeteriorationoftheriverbanks(Lassoetal.,2011;Gutierrezetal.,2012).Theestimatesformercuryfrom thesedimentinDaguariverbetween1998–2010revealedanaverageconcentrationoflessthan0.2mg/kg(Álvarez, 2010).ArecentworkbyAlvarez(2013a)estimatedameanconcentrationof1.36mg/kgformercuryinbivalvesfrom theDaguariver,whichisavaluealmostthreetimeshigherthanthestandardlegallimitsof0.5mg/kgforfishproducts (Resolution776/2008).Likewise,DeMigueletal.(2014)indicatedthatmercuryconcentrationinfishrangedfrom 0.026to3.3mg/kgarisingfromartisanalgoldmininginColombia.Thesameauthorsfurtherstatethatthemercury concentrationinfishofValledelCaucarangedfrom0.16to0.5mg/kg.
Perafanetal.summarizedthechangescausedbyminingintheriversasfollows:reductionandevenlossofriver flow,lowoxygen,organicpollutionfromoilandgreaseoriginatinginthedrillingmachines,increasingconcentration ofmercury,cyanideandharmfulsolidwaste.Othersourcesofsedimenthavebeenlogging-induceddeforestationand excavationoftheriverbanksthatincreasedthesedimentloadandcausedmodificationsintheriverflow(Lassoetal., 2011).Thesedisturbancesalsocontributedtothereductioninthefishstockoftheriver.
• BayofBuenaventura
Water qualitymonitoring was conducted byCVC between2000and 2011,inthe Bayof Buenaventura, at 30 samplingpointswithabiannualsamplingfrequency.Intotal720samplesweretakenintwelveyears,theanalysisof whichrevealedthedeteriorationofthewaterqualityintheBayofBuenaventura.Forexample,outof192samples collectedfromeightsamplingpointsneartheaccesscanaltotheportandthebuilt-upareaneartheCascajalisland, ontheaverage,84%werebelowthestandardforprimarycontactduetototalcoliforms,whereas52%ofthesamples exhibitedabundanceoftotalcoliformsthatmadethewaterunsuitableforsecondarycontact(GLA,2012b).Ingeneral, theinnerpartofthebayclosertotheurbancenterswassuitableneitherforprimarynorsecondarycontactsduetothe directreleaseofuntreateddomesticwasteandalowflushingrate(Alvarez,2013b).Asrecentlyas2013,almostall thesamplesanalyzedforcoliformsrevealedthebaytobeunsuitableforbothprimaryandsecondarycontacts(Ospina andPe˜na,2004).
OspinaandPe˜na(2004)furtherstatedthatthemercuryconcentrationinthewatercolumnoftheBayofBuenaven- turarangedbetween0.001and0.018ppm,andinalgalspeciestheaccumulationrangedbetween0and0.198ppm.The samesourceassertedthatthemercuryconcentrationhadincreased22timesbetween1995and2002.Álvarez(2010)in itsmonitoringreportofthesedimentsintheBayofBuenaventurain1998–2010indicatedthatthemaximummercury concentrationwas0.4mg/kg,whichislowerthanthecontaminationstandard(1mg/kg)setbytheenvironmentprotec- tionagency(EPA).Ontheotherhand,Siegel(2011)statedthatthemercuryconcentrationintheBayofBuenaventura wasthreetimeshigherthanthestandard.However,dataonmercuryconcentrationfromminingwasnotavailable.
• Groundwater
Dataon the quantity andhydro-chemistryof ground waterin CC-AMDAwas not available.This calls for an inventoryofgroundwatersourcesandastudyontheirhydro-geologicalandhydro-chemicalcharacteristics.
3.4. Impacts
Socio-economicimpacts
Partsoftheriverandthebayareunsuitableforprimaryandsecondarycontactsduetohighbacterialload.Thishas bothasocialandaneconomicimpactbydenyingthelocalcommunitiesrecreationalactivitiessuchasswimmingand boatingandbyreducingthequalityoftheenvironmentalconditionsfortourismandfishing.
FumigationofillicitcropsusingthechemicalGlyphosatecauseswaterpollutionandaffectsnon-targetfoodcrops, withoutachievingitsdesiredgoaloferadicatingillicitcrops(Meza,1999;WalshandSánchez-Garzoli,2008;Youngers andWalsh,2010).Asfishinginthisterritoryisforsubsistence,thecommunities’welfareregardingfoodsecurityis compromiseddue towaterpollution.Moreover,according toPerafan etal., pollutionof somerivers flowing into thePacific coasthadaffectedthefishstockinthebaysothatfishermenneededtotravelfurtheroffshore,incurring increasedcosts.ThecombinationoftheuseofGlyphosatetocontrolillicitcrops;mercuryandheavymachineryin goldmininghadchangedtheriver´secologicalstatusleadingtoarapiddeclineoffishpopulationandproducinga socio-economicimpactreflectedinthelossof fishingcatchandrevenues, lossoffishingjobsandathreattofood security(Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).
Plotsoffarmlandshavebeenpushedfurtherbackfromtheriverbyexcavationforgoldextraction.Forexample only27%ofthefarmplotsalongtheriverbankremainedwhiletheresthadbeendestroyedbyexcavationforgold (CC-AMDA,2012b).In Zaragozamore than60ha of qualityvalleyfarm landsweredestroyed inoneyear(CC- AMDA,2012b).Thisresultedinasocio-economicandculturalimpactexpressedasathreattofoodsecurityasaccess tofoodbasicswasmorecostly,andinterruptionoftraditionalagriculturalpracticeswasforceduponthecommunities (Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).
Publichealthimpacts
Theunsuitabilityofpartsofthetwowaterbodiesforprimaryandsecondarycontactsduetothehighbacterialload hasaffectedthehealthofthecommunitywhoselivelihoodisassociatedwiththesewaterbodies.Pathogensindomestic wastewaterhavebeenthecauseofwater-bornediseasesaffectingthepublichealth(Avenda˜no-Uribeetal.,2013).
Indeed,theWorldfactbookplacesColombiainthelistofcountrieswithhighriskofwaterbornediseases(CIA,2005).
EuropeanCommission(2002)classifiesGlyphosateasnon-carcinogenicandnon-genotoxicbutassociatesitwith somedegreeofshortandlongtermreproductive,liverandgastrointestinaltoxicity.Glyphosate,whilebeingvindicated ofitsharmbyitsproducersandsomeauthors(WHO,1994;Monsato,2002,Farmeretal.,2005),itisblamedbyothers forbeingtoxictohumans(Richardetal.,2005;Songetal.,2012).ReportsfromAfro-Colombiancommunitygroups indicatewidespreadskin,respiratory,andgastrointestinalproblemsafterfumigationstakeplace(Sánchez-Garzoliand Schafer,2012).InadditiontoGlyphosate,mercurypoisoningofhumansandotherfaunahasbeenobserved(Perafán etal.,2013).
3.5. Responses
Beforeproceeding withresponses,abrief descriptionof thelegalandinstitutionalbackgroundregardingwater policybothatthenationalandregionallevelisnecessary.Thishelpstoidentify themismatchbetweenpolicyand implementationthatisaffectingthewaterqualityoftheaquaticresourcesinCC-AMDA.Table4summarizessome ofthelegalandinstitutionalentitiesresponsibleforwatergovernanceinColombia.
Watergovernanceatthenationallevel
The historyof legislation on waterand the environment inColombia datesback to the 1930swhen Regional AutonomousCorporations(RACs)weresetup(CVC,2012a).Thoughasanitationcodeintheformofdecree1371of 1953wasmadefortheregulationofwastewater,thefirstmostimportantmeasuretakenbythegovernmentregarding watermanagementwasthecreationin1954,oftheCorporacionautonomaRegionaldelValledelCauca(CVC)to managelandandwater(CVC,2012a).Inthesubsequentyears,about33regionalauthorities–RACs–wereformedto managewaterresourcesataregionallevel.TheNationalInstituteforRenewableNaturalResourcesandEnvironment
Table4
LegalandinstitutionalframeworksonwaterinColombia.
Legislation Function Implementinginstitution
ConstitutionArticle49 Health&sanitationdevelopment. Government
ConstitutionArticle366 Potablewater&sanitationdevelopment. Government
Decrto2811de1974 Managementofrenewablenaturalresources MESDa
Decreto1541de1978 Managementoffreshwaters MESD,MoHb,RAC
Decreto1594de1984(3930de2010) Managementofthequalityofalltypesofwater MESD,MoH,SGCc,
Decreto1875de1979 Preventionofmarinecontaminationn DIMARd
Ley99de1993 Creation&empowermentofMESD Government
Decreto1575de2007 ManagementofWQforhumanconsumption MESD,MoH,SPRSe
Policy3810de2014 Ruralwatersupplyandbasicsanitation VASPf
aMinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment.
b MinistryofHealth.
cServicioGeologicoColombiano.
d DirreccionMaritimayPortuaria.
eSuper–intendancyofPublicandResidentialServices.
fViceministeriodeAguaySaneamientoBasico.
(INDERENA)wasestablishedin1968andsubsequentlytransformedintotheMinistryofEnvironmentandSustainable Development(MESD,2014).
TheenvironmentandwaterbodiesinColombiaaregivenlegalprotectionthroughseverallawsanddecrees.The Colombianconstitutionhighlightsthedevelopmentofpotablewaterandsanitation.Healthandenvironmentalsanitation arepartofthegovernment’sobligation(Article49)toensurepotablewatersupplyandpublichealth(Article366).
Decree1541/1978referstothemanagementoffreshwaterwiththeobjectivesoffulfillingtheprinciplestatedinthe nationalcodeofnaturalrenewableresources(Decree2811/1974),whichistheuseofresourcesforhuman,economic andsocialdevelopment.Decree 1594/1984,latersignificantlyrevisedbydecree3930/2010,isconcerned withthe qualityofsurface,ground,andestuarine,marineandwastewaters.ThewaterqualityguidelineunderChapter4of thisdecreeservesasabasisfordecisionmakingconcerningtheregulationanddeterminationofthephysico-chemical and bacteriologicalcharacteristics of the water sources for human consumption,agriculture, livestock, recreation andpreservation of faunaand flora.Similarly, decree 1875/1979 dictatesthe norms for the prevention of marine contamination.Allthedecreesandlawswerepromulgatedbetween1974and2014(Table4).
Attheregionallevel,RACsarethehighestauthoritiesconcerningtheenvironment.Forexample,CVC,oneofthe RACs,hastheresponsibilityofmonitoringwaterandimposingsanctionsforinfractionsofthelaw;itcangoasfar asconfiscatingmaterialsharmfultowaterresources.Withrespecttowaterqualityforhumanconsumption,thehealth secretariatsareresponsibleforensuringtheprovisionofpotablewater(Law1575of2007).
WatergovernanceinCC-AMDA
InCC-AMDA,theCommunityCouncilhasthepowertomanagewater.Thispoweremanatesfromarticle13of thenationalconstitution,whichprotectstherightsofdiscriminatedandmarginalizedgroups.Law70of1993respects therightsoftheblackcommunityandattributescollectiveownershipofvirginlandsoccupiedbytheminthePacific basin(CongresodeColombia,1993).Decree1745of1995,whichimplementsthecreationofcommunitycouncils, enablestheCommunityCounciltomakerulesonitsterritorytoadminister,utilizeandprotectnaturalresources.
Therefore,theCommunityCouncilcanestablishitsowninternalrulesatthecommunitylevelwiththeapprovalofthe generalassembly.Forexample,industrialmining,woodextraction,commercialhunting,theuseofherbicides,dynamite andchemicalsareprohibitedinCC-AMDA(Farah-Quijanoetal.,2012).Externalinstitutionscancontributetothe enforcementoftheinternalrulesoftheCommunityCouncil.Forexample,theCVCmayconfiscateillegallyextracted materials(e.g.timber,animals).ThemunicipalityofBuenaventuracancloseillegalminingenterprises.Thegovernment prohibitscultivationofillicitcropsandwilleradicatewherevertheyareidentified.Thus,theCommunityCouncilhas links,andinteractswithvariousgovernment,aswellaspublicinstitutionsandnon-governmentalorganizations-NGOs (Fig.4).
Fig.4.Governanceandstakeholders’map.
3.5.1. Pastresponses Publicresponses
Differentresponsestothecorresponding drivers,pressuresorimpactsarealreadyinplace.Forexample,inCC- AMDA,variousorganizationscametogetherin2010toprotestagainstthedestruction offorestsandthe riversby logging,miningandotherdevelopmentactivities.Thisresultedinasocialemergencydeclarationcallingforraised awarenessofdamagetothenaturalenvironment(OPT,2013).
Institutionalresponses
Aconcertedactionwascalledagainstillegalmining.ThisledtotheconclusionoftheAgreement27/2007among theMinistryofMines andEnergy,the MinistryofEnvironment,theAttorneyGeneral’soffice,andtheInstituteof MineandGeology(Guttierezetal.,2012).Theaimwastodesignandimplementstrategiestopreventing,detecting andpunishingillegalminingthroughoutthecountry.
Followingtheaccord,interventionsweremadeinto106of173illegalminingactivities,16siteswereclosedand 691machines wereconfiscatedin2010throughoutthecountry(Guttierezetal.,2012).Theauthorsfurtherstated
Table5
SummaryoftheresultsofthesixDPSIRcyclesconductedfortheanalysisofwaterusesandwaterqualityissueswithintheterritoryofthe CC-AMDA.
No Driver Pressure State Impact Response
1 Agriculture Nutrients Nutrient
concentra- tion/eutrophication
Foodandwater security
Previous responses
Glyphosate Waterpollution Humanhealth Legislation,legal
action,public campaignandprotest Food&watersecurity
2 Mining Mercury,sediment Mercury
concentration(metal pollution),turbidity, aquaticbiophysical change
Humanhealth, Foodandwater security
Socialandeconomic 3 Infrastructure
development
Sediment Turbidity, Foodandwater
security
Recommendations Aquatic
biophysical change
Socialandeconomic
4 Logging Sediment Turbidity, Foodandwater
security
Strengthen implementation power,Establish CBWRM Aquatic
biophysical change
Socialandeconomic
5 Tourism Organicpollutants Coliformload,BOD Humanhealth
Social&economic
6 Fisheries Organicpollutants Coliformload,BOD Humanhealth
Social&economic
thatin2011,whilethegeneralattorney’sofficereported1042casesofillegalminingand16casesofenvironmental pollution,theMinistryofEnvironmentreportedtheclosureof78miningsites.
CVCcarriedoutseveralinspectionsofillegalgoldminingandobservedabout16excavatorsalongthebanksofthe middlebasinoftheDaguariver.Thenationalpoliceaerialinspectionrevealedtheactivitiesof60newexcavators,and incollaboration,thesetwogovernmentalentitiesconfiscatedthreemachinesandarrested12people(B-Cali,2012).
Accordingtothesamesource,theseoperationswerecarriedoutinthefaceofattacksbytheillegalminersincluding buryingantivehicleminesalongthehighways.Thesemeasures,however,seeminsufficienttothecommunitywho claimed thattheCVCandthepolicereactedtoolatetotheircall(Guttierezetal., 2012).The scopeofthe illegal miningintheAfro-ColombianterritorieshasforcedtheCVCtourgethenationalgovernment,thepoliceandother administrativebodiesofBuenaventuratoputanendtotheillegalminingactivities.
Technicalresponses
CVChashelpedtechnicallywiththeinstallationofpipedwatersupplyinthevillageofLaDelfina,aswellasenabling storageanddistributionofrainwater(Farah-Quijanoetal.,2014).Furthermeasurestoavoidthecontaminationofthe waterbodiesbygarbagehadbeenimplementedbyshopkeepers(Table5).
3.6. Indicators
Indicatorsarevaluesderivedfromparametersthatprovideinformationaboutaphenomenon,andtheyshouldneither betoonumerous,soastoavoidclutteringtheoverview,nortoofewtoprovidesufficientinformation(OECD,1993).
TheOECD(1993)furtherelaboratesthattheselectionofindicatorsdependsonpolicyrelevance,analyticalsoundness andmeasurability. Developing indicatorsdepends ondefinition of whatone wantstoindicate (Garietal., 2015).
Indicatorsareusefultoqualitativelyassessthemagnitudeof Pressures,theextentofStatechangeandtheseverity ofImpacts.Moreover,theyhelptoassesstheeffectivenessofResponsesmadebymeasuringthedegreeofprogress towardsmanagementtargets(OECD,1993).Thiscanbeachievedbycomparingthetypeandfrequencyofresponses
andthechangeinanyoneoftheDPSIRcategories.Lastbutnotleast,indicatorshighlightthetypeandtechnological levelofdrivers.
Basedonthis, anumberof indicators havebeen proposedinTable 6 for the DPSIRcategories. The indicator selectionprocessfollowedasimplelogicthatthemagnitudeofactivitiesisafunctionoftheavailabilityofobjectof action(e.g.agriculturalland,mines),actors(e.g.farmers,miners)andtechnology(e.g.equipment).Thatmeansthe magnitudeofanactivitycanbedeterminedbyconsideringtheextent(quantity)oftheobjectonwhichtheactivity takesplace,howmanyactorsareinvolvedintheactivityandwhattypeoftoolortechnologytheyareusing.
4. Discussion
Onthe basisof the availabledata,the Daguariverseemstobe contaminatedbydomesticsewage rendering it unsuitableforhumanconsumption.Asmeansoftreatmentarenotavailableinthecommunity,thisisapriorityissue forpublichealth. TheBayofBuenaventura isaffectedbyorganic pollution,buteutrophicationdoes notappearto beaproblematpresent.Thereportsofmercurycontaminationareinconclusive.Nevertheless,theconsiderationof potentialhealtheffectsandtheprecautionaryprincipleindicatethatcarefulmonitoringofmercuryinsedimentsand bivalvesshouldbeimplemented.So,moreresearchonthePressuresandtheresultingStatechangeofthiswaterbody isessential.
GoodenvironmentallawsregardingwaterandsanitationareavailableforCC-AMDA,buttheimplementationof theselawsandregulationsarecurrentlyinsufficient.Moreover,somepolicydirectivesarecriticizedforpotentially weakeningthetraditionalrobustcommunitybasedwatermanagementsystems.Forexample,Delgado-Serranoetal.
(2017b)expresstheirconcernoverthepolicydirective3810/2014thatmayunderminetheeffectivegovernanceofWater UsersAssociations(WUA).Analysisofofficialplans(AlcaldíadeBuenaventura,2001;AlcaldíadeBuenaventura, 2015),theprogramsofCVC(CVC,2012b),fieldvisitsandworkshopswithstakeholders,showedthatthemunicipality doesnothavepermanentprogramsnordoes itemploysufficientinvestmenttodealwithwaterissues;actionsand programsofpublicinstitutionsarenotcoordinated;watershedmanagementplansarenotavailable,andmechanisms donotexisttosolveenvironmentalconflictsandsocialdemandsregardingwaterqualityandmanagementinDagua river.Ingeneral,availableinformationexploressocialandecologicalissuesseparately,andproposedpolicysolutions aretoonarrow anddesigned onamicroscalewithaimof solvingspecificissues. Asaresult,water management inthisrivercanbecharacterizedbyalackofcoordinationamongpublic institutions,poorcommunicationamong stakeholdersandpublicinstitutions,andabsenceofpermanentactionregardingwaterissues.
Nonetheless,theorganizationofthecommunityintocouncilsdemonstratesthatCC-AMDAhasthenecessarystruc- turalarrangementstoresolvemanyoftheseproblems,particularly,withthecollaborationofconcernedgovernmental andnon-governmentalinstitutions.Theestablishmentofcommunity-basedwaterresourcesmanagement(CBWRM) basedonWASHframeworks(UNICEF-GWP,2014)couldensuresafepotablewater,includingsanitationandhygiene services,thatguaranteesthefuturewaterandhealthsecurityoftheCC-AMDA.Thisapproachhasbeenusedeffectively byruralcommunitiesinotherlowincomecountries.TheeffortwillrequirecontinueddialoguewiththeCC-AMDA, aswellasseekingastrongercollaborationwithotherstakeholders.TheCBWRMcouldeventuallybeup-scaledtoa catchmentlevelwiththeinvolvementofothercommunities,adoptingabroaderscopeforprotectingthenaturalwater bodies.
TheDPSIRframeworkisusefulforlinkingthewaterqualitydeteriorationwithitscauses.Further,responsestothe problemshavebeenhighlighted.Thestudyincludesseveraldrivers,usingmultipleDPSIRcycles.Thisapproachwasan attempttoovercometheproblemofuni-directionalityoftheDPSIRframeworkandtoaddressseveralmultidirectional interactions.ButestablishinglinksbetweenallDriversandassociatedPressures,StatechangesandImpactshasnot beenpossibleduetodatalimitations.Forexample,quantitativedataonthereleaseofchemicals(mercury,glyphosate), nutrients,sedimentanddomesticwasteintothewaterbodiesarelackingorinsufficient.Dataonastateofthewater bodies,suchastheconcentrationofsubstanceslikemetals,andeutrophicationarenotadequate.Moreover,thespecific contributionofthe studiedvillages tothewaterqualitydeterioration ofDaguariverhasnotbeendetermined.This necessitatesempiricalfieldstudiesforquantitativedeterminationof theloadofcontaminantsemanatingfromeach village.
However,applyingtheDPSIRapproachtothestudyareaisonlyafirstapproachthatshowesthegeneralpictureof thewaterqualitysituationinCC-AMDA.Moreover,ithighlighteswhatdatashouldbeacquiredforafutureDPSIR analysis.Broaderandregularempiricalstudiesthatcanproducesufficientquantitativedatarelatedtotheloadand
S.R.Garietal./WaterScience32(2018)318–337333 IndicatorsoftheDPSIRframeworkrelativetothewaterqualityoftheDaguariverandthebayofBuenaventura.
Economic activities(Drivers)
Indicators
Drivers Pressure State Impact Response
Agriculture Areaofagriculturallands (ham2)
Nutrientload(t/d) Nutrient concentration (mg/l)
Foodandwater securityloss(no.of peopleaffected)
Legislation(no.of acts)
No.offarmers Pesticideload(g/d) Pesticide
concentration(ng/l) Typeofagriculture(No)
Mining No.ofmines Sedimentload(t/d) Turbidity(NTU,JTU,Sechidisc) Economicloss
(monetaryunits)
Community campaigns (number)
No.ofartisanalminers Mercury
concentration(mg/l– inwatercolumn;
mg/kg–inbivalves, sediments)
Emergency declarations (number)
No.ofindustrialminers Mercuryload(g/d) Designing
strategies(no.of designs)
No.ofequipments Reductioninfishstock(biomass
–kg/ha)
Legalactions (number) Typeofequipments(No)
Logging No.oftimberindustries Sedimentload(t/d) Turbidity(NTU,JTU,Sechidisc) Socialimpact(no.of peopledisplaced)
Legislation(no.of acts)
No.ofloggers Typeoftimber industries(No)
Reductioninfish stock(biomass– kg/ha)
Community campaigns (number) Community actions(number) Tourism No.oftouristoperators Organicmatterload
(BODload-t/d)
Pollution(BOD–mg/l,coliform load-MPN/100ml)
Socialimpact(no.ofpeople unabletoenjoynaturalwater bodies)
Legislation(no.of acts)
No.oftourists
Fishery No.offishers Organicmatterload
(BODload-t/d)
Pollution(BOD,mg/l) Variousailments(no.of peopleaffected)
Legislation(no.of acts)
No.offishingboats Typeoffishinggears(No) Infrastructure
development
Areaofinfrastructural development.(km2)
Sedimentload(t/d) Turbidity(NTU,JTU, Sechidisc)
PrevalenceofWBD (no.ofpeople affected)
Legislations(no.
ofacts) Typeofinfrastructures
(no)
Community- actions (number)
concentrationofsubstancesarerequired.Furthermore,bothaqualitativeandmonetaryassessmentofthesocialand economicimpactsisneededtosupplysufficientdatatolinkcauses,problemsandimpactswithintheDPSIRframework.
Amonitoringplanthatincludesalltherelevantparametersshouldbeimplementedtoevaluatetheenvironmentaland ecologicalstatusofthewaterbodiesthatcanthenbeusedasadatasourceforafutureDPSIRanalysis.
5. Conclusionandrecommendations
Socio-economicactivitiesandtheirconsequenceshaveaffectedthewaterqualityofDaguariverandtheBayof Buenaventura tovariousdegrees.Particularlydomestic wastehas made aconsiderablepartof thesewater bodies unsuitableevenforsecondarycontact.Thishasanimportanthealthimplicationtothecommunity.Thoughthewater couldbeadequatelytreatedbeforeitissafeforhumanconsumption,theabsenceofeventherudimentarytreatment systemhasmagnifiedthehealthrisk.Atthepresentrateofminingandinfrastructuredevelopment,thebiophysical changeandchemicalcontaminationofthewaterbodiesisamatterofconcern.Itisespeciallyimportantasitposesa threattothelocalcommunitieswhoselivelihoodsdependonthenaturalenvironment.
Despitedatalimitations,theDPSIRframeworkwasabletodescribecauseeffectrelationshiptotheextentthatdata wereavailable.Thesocio-economicactivitiesledtothewaterqualitydeteriorationoftheDaguaRiverandtheBayof Buenaventura.Moreover,individualactivitiesresponsiblefortheenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpactswere identified.Theimpactsonthehumanwelfareweremanifestedashealth,economicandsocialproblems.Thougha numberofresponsesweretakentoalleviatetheimpacts,itwasnotenough,necessitatingfurtherstrongactions.
TofillthedatagapbetweenthevariouscategoriesoftheDPSIRapproach,itisnecessarytoconductmoreempirical researchonthepressuresemanatingfromsocio-economicactivities,andonthestateofallthewaterbodies.Thishelps tocreateaclearerlink betweencategoriesintheDPSIRchain.It alsoilluminatespossibleinteractionsamongthe categoriesofDPSIR.
Strengtheningtheexecutivepowerofinstitutionsresponsibleforthesustainablemanagementofthewaterbodies shouldbeeffectedbytheconcernednational,regionalandlocalpoliticalauthorities.Forexample,CVCshouldhavea strongercollaborationwiththeregionalgovernment,withthepoliceandthecommunitycouncils.Besides,bothCVC andthepoliceshouldbequickertorespond.Upgradingthecouncils’powerenablingittotakeastrongerlegalaction againstrulebreakersisessential.TheestablishmentofaCBWRMcouldmakeasubstantialcontributiontorealizing theseobjectives.
Therecommendationsarebrieflysummarizedbelow:
• EffortshouldbemadetowardstheestablishmentofthefutureCBWRM,basedontheWASHframework.Ateam ofco-researchersrecruitedfromthecommunitycouncilandtheresearchersofthePontificaUniversidadJaveriana (PUJ)couldtakeanimportantpartinthistask.
• Theexistentwatersupplyandsanitationfacilitiessuchasrainwaterharvestingandseweragesystemsshouldbe maintainedthroughcooperationbetweentheCommunityCouncil,themunicipality,theregionalgovernmentand NGOs.
• Regularmonitoring ofTotal andFecalColiformsandBODinthe water,Mercury inthesedimentandbivalves shouldbeimplementedbytheCVC,especiallyclosetothepopulationcentres.
Acknowledgement
Thisresearchwassupportedbythe ERASMUSMUNDUSprogrammeEMJDMACOMA, andbythe EC7FP Grantagreement282845(COMET-LA,http://www.comet-la.eu).
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