LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION IN TANZANIAN HIGHER EDUCATION:
A particular focus on the University of Dar es Salaam
Line Kjølstad Gran Master thesis PED 4390
Spring 2007
University of Oslo Faculty of Education
Institute for Educational Research
ABSTRACT
Kiswahili is the African lingua franca of Tanzania. In the education system it serves as the language of instruction at primary school level. From secondary school and onwards, however the medium of instruction is English. This is an issue that has caused a lot of debate over the years. Many publications and a lot of research on the issue suggest that the current language policy is an obstacle to effective learning and teaching because students as well as lecturers are not sufficiently competent in English. Therefore it has been argued that the medium of instruction should be Kiswahili, also at post primary level.
Although it seems obvious to many educationists that learners learn best through a language they understand well, there is also considerable support for retaining the English medium in Tanzania. The proponents of the English medium often argue that globalisation makes it important to keep the English medium, that the Kiswahili language lacks the necessary vocabulary to function as an academic language or that such a change is too costly for a developing country like Tanzania.
The main objective of this study is to explore and gain insight into the various views
concerning the medium of instruction at post-primary level in Tanzania with a special focus on higher education and the University of Dar es Salaam. The opinions of lecturers,
professors and students were sought through open-ended interviews, employing the interview guide approach. The study also involved document analysis of Government policy documents, newspapers and earlier studies and publications on the issue.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The successful completion of this study was enabled through the generous contributions of many people in various fashions.
I am in great dept of gratitude to my supervisor, Birgit Brock-Utne who played a key role throughout the process of my study. Firstly, it was her work that sparked the initial inspiration that lead to my decision to write about education in Tanzania. Moreover, she gave me the opportunity to participate in the LOITASA project, which I am very grateful for. Furthermore her continuous, encouragement, guidance and criticism were essential for the whole process of this study.
It is also of utmost importance to express my thankfulness to everyone who participated in this study, students, lecturers, professors and the staff of Haki Elimu. Without their
contributions this study would not have been possible.
I would also like to use this opportunity to thank my family for their support and for always believing in me, which was a great help at times when the task at hand seemed too difficult for me. Finally, I am forever grateful to my fiancé, Arne who has also been a source of indispensable support, for his patience and for helping me in numerous ways towards the completion of this thesis.
Line Kjølstad Gran Faculty of Education University of Oslo
1 INTRODUCTION ... 6
1.1 Objectives of the study ... 7
1.2 Research questions... 7
1.3 History of educational language policies... 8
1.4 The structure of the Tanzanian education system ... 11
1.5 Policies and practices concerning medium of instruction ... 12
1.6 Students’ English competence ... 14
1.7 Significance of the study... 17
1.8 Limitations of the study... 17
1.9 Structure of the study ... 18
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 19
2.1 Definitions of key concepts... 19
Mother tongue ... 19
Medium of instruction ... 20
Code-switching... 20
Globalisation... 20
Development ... 22
2.2 Theories guiding the study ... 24
2.2.1 Education for Self -Reliance ... 25
2.2.2 Problem-posing education... 26
2.2.3 Language and social reproduction ... 28
2.3 What can research and pedagogical theory tell us about teaching and learning foreign languages? 29 2.3.1 Teaching of English To Speakers of other Languages (TESOL)... 29
2.3.2 What about effective learning of the subject matter?... 32
2.4 Related studies ... 34
2.4.1 Study by Grace Puja... 35
2.4.2 Study by Rhoda Peterson ... 36
2.4.3 Study by Mary Alphan Mkwizu... 37
3 RESEARCH METHODOLGY... 39
3.1 Research methods ... 39
3.2 Data collection ... 40
3.2.1 Interviews... 41
3.2.2 Document analysis ... 43
3.2.3 The process of fieldwork... 44
3.3 Sampling ... 46
3.4 Reliability and validity ... 47
3.4.1 Reliability... 47
3.4.2 Validity ... 49
3.4.3 External validity as ecological validity ... 50
3.5 Ethical concerns ... 50
3.6 Challenges... 51
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ... 53
4.1 English versus education? ... 54
4.1.1 Learning in English... 55
4.1.1.1 An educationist’s observations of the students’ situation... 56
4.1.2 Teaching in English ... 57
In favour of Kiswahili ... 58
In between- bilingualism ... 60
In favour of English... 62
4.1.3 Critical thinking and the search for true knowledge ... 62
4.1.4 Secondary school ... 64
St. Thomas More Machrina High school... 64
What can secondary school examinations tell us?... 65
4.1.5 Why are so many Tanzanians convinced that the English medium is the best way to learn English?66 4.2 Kiswahili as an academic language ... 68
4.2.1 Is English the language of science and technology? ... 68
4.2.2 Vocabulary... 70
4.2.3 Materials ... 73
Publishing ... 74
4.2.4 Information and communications technology... 75
Summary ... 77
4.3 Language of instruction and development... 77
4.3.1 Tanzania can not develop without English ... 80
4.3.2 The English medium as barrier to development in Tanzania ... 81
Equality ... 81
Knowledge production and dissemination ... 83
4.3.3 Is Africa different? ... 85
4.3.4 The views of Haki Elimu on the language of instruction issue ... 87
5 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 91
5.1 Summary ... 91
5.2 Discussion ... 93
5.3 Recommendations... 96
5.4 Recommendations for further studies... 97
REFERENCES ... 98
1 INTRODUCTION
Tanzania is situated on the east coast of Africa and has an estimated population of 33 million people. Dodoma is the political capital, whereas Dar es Salaam is the commercial capital of the country (URT, 2006). With the use of Kiswahili, English and more than 120 indigenous languages, the society of Tanzania can be described as multilingual (Roy-Campbell, 1992).
As opposed to the majority of African countries however, Tanzania has in Kiswahili a
unifying African lingua franca (Brock-Utne, 2005). The National Kiswahili Council estimated that 99 percent of the population spoke Kiswahili in 2004 (Masoto, 2004 in Brock-Utne, 2005). The use of Kiswahili is growing fast, especially due to the many marriages between people belonging to different ethnic groups with different languages (Puja, 2003). About 80 million people in 14 countries in East and Central Africa speak Kiswahili (Masoto, 2004 in Brock-Utne, 2005), and it is one of the five official languages of the African Union (Brock- Utne, 2005).
Kiswahili is used as the language of instruction through the seven years of primary school in Tanzania. The Kiswahili Department at the University of Dar es Salaam also uses Kiswahili as the language of instruction. Post primary education is otherwise offered in English (Peterson, 2006; Brock-Utne, 2005 and Mutasa, 2003). In spite of numerous studies and publications (Brock-Utne and Halmarsdottir, 2003; Puja, 2003; Malekela, 2003; Mkwizu, 2003 and Mwinsheike, 2001) pointing out the problems this situation is causing teachers and learners, the policy is still in place.
I chose to write about this particular topic for several reasons. Firstly, I believe education entails an immense potential for development at individual, national and global levels.
Secondly, I decided to focus on higher education particularly, because I am under the
impression that the role of higher learning in development has been overshadowed by efforts to provide primary education for all. The use of a foreign language of instruction was
especially interesting to me because it is represents a major difference from the Norwegian school system I am familiar with. Furthermore it goes against everything I learned when undertaking the bachelor course of philosophy of Education, prior to the onset of this study.
Thus, after discussing various topics related to higher education in Africa with my supervisor, the language issue emerged as the more interesting topic to focus on. This study attempts to gain insight into, and illuminate the opinions on either side of this heated debate, with a
special focus on the University of Dar es Salaam. I conducted fieldwork for this study in Dar es Salaam in the period between the 26th of September and the 21st of October in 2006.
Furthermore I went back to Dar es Salaam in January 2007 and completed the process of writing there.
This study is a part of the LOITASA project (Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa), which is a NUFU funded research project that began in January 2002. It is based on cooperation between researchers at the Institute for Educational Research at the University of Oslo, Faculty of Education at the University of Dar es Salaam and Faculty of Education at the University of Western Cape.
1.1 Objectives of the study
The main objective of this study is to explore and gain insight into the various views
concerning the medium of instruction at post-primary level in Tanzania, with a special focus on higher education and the University of Dar es Salaam in relation to the following issues:
• How is the quality of the education offered at the university in Tanzania affected by the English language of instruction?
• Is Kiswahili a suitable language for higher learning?
• How does the current policy on language of instruction in Tanzania relate to the process of development of the nation?
1.2 Research questions
• Are students learning efficiently with the English medium?
• Are lecturers/teachers teaching efficiently with the English medium?
• Is using English as the medium of instruction an effective strategy for learning English?
• Is Kiswahili a viable alternative to the English medium?
1.3 History of educational language policies
Kiswahili was made the language of instruction in the four years of primary education, which a minority of Tanzanian children were provided with during the German colonial period from 1886 to 1920. The German colonial government changed the Kiswahili script from Arabic to Latin (Roy-Campbell, 2001). Brock-Utne (2000) points out that regardless of the Germans’
intentions behind using the Kiswahili language in colonial administration and education; their use of the language is the main reason why it became the uniting lingua franca of Tanganyika
In 1920 the British colonial government assumed control over Tanganyika as a result of the Versailles Treaty. The British retained the Kiswahili medium of instruction in primary education, for colonial administration on the other hand they chose to use English. Under British rule separate school systems for African, Asian and European children were developed. Gujarati was the language of instruction in most Asian primary schools, with English medium at higher levels (Brock-Utne, 2000).
Tanganyika achieved independence in 1961. Two years later the Asian vernaculars were removed from the primary school curricula by the Ministry of Education. English and
Kiswahili were thus made the only media of instruction at this level. In 1962 the government announced that Kiswahili was to be the national language of Tanganyika. This was followed by an increased prestige for the language, particularly as a directive from the Prime Minister stated that Kiswahili was to be used in all state and public functions. The Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere addressed the first parliament of independent Tanganyika in Kiswahili in December 1962 (Roy-Campbell, 2001). The United Republic of Tanzania was formed in 1964 as the sovereign states of Tanganyika and decided to unite. Zanzibar achieved independence from the British in 1963 (DFID, 2006).
In March 1967, the Government declared that Kiswahili was to be the language of instruction throughout primary school. According to Roy-Campbell (2001) this decision helped increase the prestige of the Kiswahili language further, and elevated it from the status of a second-class language. The necessary preparations, such as producing textbooks and reorienting the
teachers took place a long side the process of effecting the change in medium, rather than beforehand. The production and distribution of textbooks in Kiswahili was to be facilitated by
Tanzania Publishing House and Tanzania Educational supplies, which had been set up by the Government in 1967.
In 1964 the Institute of Kiswahili Research became a part of the University of Dar es Salaam.
The staff of the Institute was actively engaged in cataloguing, collecting and contextualizing new words. The new role of the Kiswahili language became even more evident with the establishment of bodies like the National Kiswahili Council (BAKITA). The council was assigned to have the main responsibility in developing Kiswahili in Tanzania (Brock-Utne 2000).
According to Brock-Utne (2000), the continued use of the English medium in post-primary education was deemed to be unsatisfactory in the second five year plan (1969-1974), which was the first government plan since the Arusha Declaration and Education for Self-Reliance.
The change in language of instruction in primary school was perceived to be a part of a larger plan to implement the use of the Kiswahili medium throughout the whole education system.
In 1969 a circular outlining the gradual shift in medium of instruction was sent to all the headmistresses and headmasters of secondary schools by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry circular proposed that the subjects Kiswahili and “siasa”, which means political science, should be taught through the Kiswahili medium from the school-year 1969/70. The initial plan was that the medium of instruction was to be changed from English to Kiswahili in all subjects in forms 1 and 2 by 1973 (Brock-Utne 2000).
The five year Development Plan also suggests the introduction of Kiswahili in higher learning institutions:
…the division between Swahili education at the primary level and English education at the secondary level will create and perpetuate a linguistic gulf between different groups and will also tend to lend an alien atmosphere to higher education, making it inevitably remote from the problems of the mass society (Roy Campbell, 1992:150).
The use of Kiswahili as the language of instruction in “siasa” and Kiswahili was
implemented, but then the reform stopped. In the period between 1969 and 1983, educators in Tanzania were preparing and waiting for the change in language of instruction from English to Kiswahili to be implemented for secondary schools, and subsequently tertiary education
In 1980 a Presidential Commission on Education was appointed by Nyerere. The task of the Commission was to review the state of education, and make recommendations for
improvements for the next 20 years. The commission consisted of 13 members, and was chaired by J. Makweta. Although the government had given the commission six months to complete its work, the study was conducted over 16 months, and the recommendations were presented to the president in February 1982. Along with a whole range of recommendations on different issues concerning education in general, there were two sets of recommendations related to education and language. Firstly, it was suggested that the teaching of both English and Kiswahili should be strengthened, and secondly it reaffirmed that Kiswahili should be introduced as the language of instruction in secondary schools in 1985, and at the tertiary level in 1992 (Roy-Campbell, 1992).
However, in August 1983 events took an unexpected turn. The minister of education was quoted in the press stating that the much anticipated shift to use Kiswahili in post-primary education was not going to be realized after all. It added to the surprise that before Makweta became the minister of education, he was the chair of the Presidential Commission on Education (Roy-Campbell, 1992).
In July 1984, two years after the commission’s report was submitted, the government made an official response to the recommendations provided in the report. The document contained no reference to, or discussion about the introduction of the Kiswahili language as medium of instruction in post-primary education (Roy- Campbell, 1992). It simply stated that:
The Ministry of Education will draw up and supervise an action plan in the implementation of programmes to improve the teaching and use of Kiswahili and English at all levels of education. Both Kiswahili and English will be used as media of education. The teaching of English will be strengthened at all levels. Kiswahili will be the medium of education at nursery and primary levels. The teaching of English will be consolidated in Primary school. English will be the medium of education at post-primary levels where the teaching of Kiswahili will also be strengthened” ( Roy- Campbell, 1992:186).
In October 1984, the National Conference on Education was held in Arusha. During the conference the decisions made by the government, concerning the recommendations offered in the Commission’s report were discussed, along with the implementation of those decisions.
In a report on how and when the approved recommendations were to be implemented, the anticipated introduction of the Kiswahili medium of instruction in post-primary education was not mentioned at all. The only reference to language found in the report was concerning the implementation of recommendations in relation to the strengthening of the English language teaching (Roy-Campbell, 2001).
Shortly after the National Education Conference in Arusha, the President gave the following explanation to the government’s decision to retain the English medium in post-primary education at a seminar organized by the Society for the Enhancement of Swahili Language and Poetry:
English is the Swahili of the world and for that reason must be taught and given the weight it deserves in our country...It is wrong to leave English to die. To reject English is foolishness not patriotism….English will be the medium of instruction in secondary schools and institutions of higher education because if it is left only as a normal subject it might die (Roy-Campbell, 1992:188).
In 1993 the secondary school subject “siasa”, which was previously taught through the Kiswahili medium was substituted by “civics”, in which English was used as the medium of instruction (Mkwizu 2003). The change in medium in “siasa” was done in an undemocratic way as the teachers were not consulted. According to Mkwizu the teachers ran into severe problems and several of them quit their jobs (Mkwizu 2003).
1.4 The structure of the Tanzanian education system
The formal education system of Tanzania is structured according to four successive levels as follows:
• Pre-primary education for 5-6 year old children which aims at promoting the children’s overall development and prepare them for primary school.
• Primary education which is a seven year compulsory level for all Tanzanian children. The major objectives of primary education are to lay the socio-cultural foundations of the Tanzanian citizen and nation and to prepare the children for
secondary education or work. It is seen as a means to self-reliant personal and national development.
• Secondary education which is divided into two levels; Ordinary level (Form 1- 4) and Advanced level (Form 5 and 6). Students completing ordinary level are expected to commence vocational training, professional training or join the workforce.
Advanced level graduates may continue with tertiary and higher education, training institutions or join the workforce.
• Tertiary and higher education and training which encompasses all post Ordinary level secondary education leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees. The aims and objectives of education at this level include preparing middle and high-level
professional human resources and preparing the students to join the world of work.
(URT, 1995).
The Tanzanian education sector was at the time of my fieldwork managed and coordinated by two ministries, namely the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. The Ministry of Education issued the Education and Training Policy in 1995 (URT, 1995). This is the policy that currently guides the education sector of Tanzania.
1.5 Policies and practices concerning medium of instruction
The policies and practices concerning the medium of instruction in the Tanzanian education system may be described as confusing and contradictory. With regard to language of
instruction in the Tanzanian school system, the Education and Training Policy specifies that:
• In pre-primary schools the medium of instruction shall be Kiswahili, and English shall be taught as a compulsory subject.
• In primary school the medium of instruction shall be Kiswahili, and English shall be taught as a compulsory subject.
• In secondary education the medium of instruction shall be English except for the teaching of other approved languages, and Kiswahili shall be a compulsory subject up to ordinary level (URT, 1995).
For higher education however, the policy does not specify which language to use as the medium of instruction. On the United Republic of Tanzania’s official national website however, the government comments on the medium of instruction in the following words:
The main feature of Tanzania’s education system is the bilingual policy, which requires children to learn both Kiswahili and English. English is essential as it is the language which links Tanzania and the rest of the world through technology, commerce and also administration. The learning of Kiswahili enables the Tanzanian students to keep in touch with their cultural values and heritage. English is taught as compulsory subject in the primary education whereas at post primary education it is the medium of instruction. With regard the Kiswahili, it is the medium of instruction at primary education while at tertiary education is taught as compulsory subject at secondary education and as option at tertiary education (URT, 2006).
While there are specific aims for each of the levels pre-primary, primary, secondary, tertiary and higher education, the policy has some general aims of education, which include:
• development of integrative personalities;
• promotion of the acquisition and appreciation of national culture and of the constitution;
• promotion of society-centred learning and the use of acquired skills and knowledge for the improvement of the quality of life;
• development of self-confidence, inquiring mind, and development oriented mindset;
• giving adaptive and flexible education that meets the challenges of an ever changing world.
• inculcation of ethical behaviour, national unity, international co-operation, peace and justice (URT, 1995)
For tertiary and higher education it is specified that:
The primary objective of tertiary and higher education and training is to impart and promote higher levels of learning, scientific and technological knowledge, and development of capacities for research. […] higher education institutions produce high level human resource (URT, 1995:76).
In 1997 the Ministry of Education and Culture in Tanzania issued a policy document named
“Sera ya Utamaduni” (cultural policy) (URT, 1997). This document was originally published in Kiswahili, but there is a version which has been translated to English available on The Ministry of Education and Culture’s official website. According to Mary Mkwizu (2003) however, when comparing the original with the translated version, she found that there are some omissions in the English version of the document. On the matter of language of
instruction Mkwizu points out that section 3.4 in the Kiswahili version gives a rather lengthy
explanation why Kiswahili ought to be used as the medium of education instead of English.
Apparently it is acknowledged in this version of the document that the use of the English medium is hindering the development of education, science and technology in Tanzania. In the English version on the other hand, it is mentioned briefly that a special programme to implement the introduction of the Kiswahili medium at all levels of education will be designed (URT, 1997). Section 1.4.1 under the post “The medium of instruction” specifies that:
A special program to enable the use of Kiswahili as a medium of instruction in education and training at all levels shall be designed and implemented (URT, 1997:3).
When or how this is supposed to take place is however not specified anywhere in the document, and this change is not mentioned in the Education and Training Policy which is issued by the same ministry (1995, URT).
In 1999 the National Higher Education Policy was issued by the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Higher Education, which was established in 1992. The policy document was issued in order to provide a general framework for higher education in Tanzania. This
document does not mention which medium of instruction to use in higher education. This policy is currently under review (URT, 1999).
1.6 Students’ English competence
Numerous research projects and publications show that students as well as lecturers in many cases are not at a level of competency in English that allows for effective learning and teaching through that medium (Roy- Campbell, 1992, Brock-Utne and Halmarsdottir, 2003;
Mwinsheikhe, 2001, Puja, 2003; Malekela, 2003; Mkwizu, 2003).
In 1984 during July and August, a study funded by the British Government was conducted on the levels of English currently existing across the educational system in Tanzania. The study was carried out by Clive Criper, a linguist from Edinburgh University and Bill Dodd, an administrator with long experience from Tanzania. Their study confirmed that the levels of competence in English were insufficient in most schools for effective learning to take place
(Brock-Utne 2000; Malekela, 2003; Peterson 2006). Regarding the students’ proficiency they observed:
The number getting within reach of being able to read unsimplified text is less than 10%. It is extremely worrying to find that nearly one third of all students are at the picture book level after four years of official English medium education. These results are a clear indication that throughout their secondary school career little or subject information is getting across to about 50% of the pupils in our sample. Only about 10% of Form IVs are at a level where on might expect English medium education to begin (Malekela 2003:104).
In 1986, following this report, the Tanzanian and the British Governments agreed to start the English Language Teaching Support Project. This 10 year project was administered by the Overseas Development Administration through the British Council in Dar es Salaam.
In order to assist teachers, materials were distributed to schools. Limited funding meant that not enough material were produced, thus all schools did not benefit from this aid. Other problems such as management difficulties, and the size of the country apparently hindered the implementation of the project (Malekela, 2003).
Another study on levels of English competence amongst students was published in 1987. This was a survey of the reading competence in English of secondary school students in Tanzania (Mwinsheikhe, 2003; Brock-Utne, 2000). The survey which was conducted by Zaline Makini Roy-Campbell and Martha Qorro showed in line with the study of Criper and Dodd that the level of competency in English is low amongst secondary school students. When it comes to concluding recommendations however, there is no accordance between the two studies.
Whereas Roy- Campbell and Qorro recommended a shift in the medium of instruction from English to Kiswahili, which the students understand a lot better, Criper and Dodd on the other hand concluded their study by recommending that efforts should be made to improve
proficiency in English among students (Mwinsheikhe, 2001; Brock-Utne, 2000).
At the University of Dar es Salaam I found a report on the “1998 UDSM Academic Audit”
(UDSM, 1999), this report expresses concern for the deteriorating competency in English amongst students, as well as teachers:
The traditionally strong and enforced medium of teaching and instruction – the English language – is fast deteriorating among university students. Except possibly in
expression in this particular language. The indications are that English will be equally problematic among teachers as the university will be compelled to recruit young staff in the face of a mass exit (retiring) of the current older teacher cadre in the next four or five years (UDSM, 1999:8).
There is a surprising discrepancy between the statement above and the following recommendation presented in the same document:
Judging from the current and projected trends and the fact that English is fast becoming the ICT language globally, UDSM should continue to use English as the medium of instruction and official communication (UDSM, 1999:29).
Below is an example of the difficulties students experience when expressing themselves in English. This is the response given by a fourth year Under-Graduate student on a test conducted in 2002 on an essay question reading: “School inspectorates and examinations in developing countries are effective devices in maintaining the quality of education. Discuss”
School inspectors are the persons who move to the Schools to Check for the implimentation of the Curriculum as well as the effectiveness of the syllabus in so doing they Collect all problems and send to the Curriculum developers.
The inspectors are not only Check for the implementation of the Curriculum but also to see the effectiveness of the teacher to teach. In this case the inspector need the good relationship (Cooperation) between teachers and to See how the effective syllabus is. Also the school inspectors tend to See whether the teachers are Ccompentant in teaching or not. And also they give feedback about the availability of materials like books, Chemicals, apparatus, teaching aids (may be local one) So as to facilitate the teaching.
The School inspectors, the call the teacher after teaching and tell him/her that where is important point to imphasis as Sometimes the teaching aids is not proper Students to understand well the subject. So you must improve for that. In doing So the education or the quality of education increases and thus mantan the our education.
The examination Is the questions written in the paper according to the respective questions that is from the respective subjects that place the Students in order to measure understanding ability. The questions Set according to what the Students learnt. The examination also may teachers to make Summative evatuation, formative as well as placement.
The examination Should be well defined in Such away that it must measure from What the Students learnt example Kwamisi- the Curriculum used is not National Curriculum. The evaluated the Curriculum according to what they did in that society but during examination, they Sent exams from National that was Curriculum in Tanzania. The students all failed because they learnt about What they did in that Society (Kwamisi). So this was the failer of What intended to measure
Problems facing the examinations, too much Cheating in Such away that the education (examination) is not effective Measure What is intended to Measure. Also likage of examination make the equality of education to drop out. In this Case examination should be carefully guided So as to reduce the likage of examination. In addition to that the examinations Should be garded up to all parts in Tanzania (Countries) do (Malekela, 2003:108).
1.7 Significance of the study
There are already a lot of studies on the implications of the English medium in post primary education in Tanzania. I found, however that so far, the main focus has been on secondary school. This made me interested in finding out about what staff and students at university level think about this issue. My hope is that this study will be helpful in putting focus on an illuminate the situation in higher education.
According to Vulliamy (1990) qualitative research strategies have considerable potential for contributing to educational theory, policy and practice in developing countries. However, if the full potential of qualitative research is to be realised, there need to be opportunities to disseminate such research both to policy-makers and members of the academic community.
Accordingly, the significance of this study will depend to a great extent on how it is received by the Tanzanian government and society.
1.8 Limitations of the study
I have had to limit myself to interviewing a sample of students and academic staff, at a single institution. With regard to academic staff I have made a purposive sampling, interviewing academic staff known to have separate views on the issue. When it comes to the students I have made a mix of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. I interviewed students I came across around the campus area. However, to ensure that I got a more representative sample of the student body I was selective in the way that I made efforts to gain information from both female and male students of various subjects.
The fact that English was the only common language the informants and myself were able to
language of either of us, thus causing the conversations to be less fluent and descriptions less rich.
1.9 Structure of the study
This thesis is organised into five chapters. The first chapter introduces the topic and its historical background. This chapter also includes objectives and problem statement, limitations of the study and significance of the study.
The theoretical framework which has guided this study is presented in chapter two along with definitions of key-concepts such as mother tongue, medium of instruction and code-switching.
It also briefly discusses globalisation and development in relation to language. Furthermore it presents the theories my analysis will be based upon.
In the following chapter the methodological aspects of the thesis are described and the findings of the study are presented and analysed in the fourth chapter. This chapter has three parts as I have organised the findings and analysis according to three different but interrelated sub topics.
The last chapter includes an attempt to put together the theoretical perspectives and the data obtained in order to answer my research questions and conclude the thesis. It also includes a summary and some remarks and recommendations
CHAPTER TWO
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter presents the theoretical framework which the analysis and discussion of my findings are based upon. It includes the Problem-Posing Pedagogy of Paulo Freire, the philosophy of Education for Self-Reliance forwarded by Julius Nyerere, Theories on the role of language in reproduction of inequality in society, and Robert Phillipson’s thoughts on linguistic imperialism. Additionally it presents various pedagogical theories and research on the nature of teaching and learning a foreign language as well as subject content. I have also used the related studies of Grace Puja, Rhoda Peterson and Mary Alphan Mkwizu. Firstly though, it provides brief presentations and comments on key concepts involved in this thesis.
2.1 Key concepts Mother tongue
Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson have defined the concept of mother tongue on the basis of four criteria. The first criterion is origin and refers to the language one learned first. The second criterion is identification which is defined at two levels. Internal identification is the language one identifies with, and external identification is the language by which one is identified as a native speaker by others. Competence is the third criterion, and relates to the language one knows best. Function is the last criterion and refers to the language one uses the most (Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson, 1996).
Mkwizu (2003) argues, that based on these criteria Kiswahili may be defined as the mother tongue for a lot of Tanzanians, because it is the language that many people use the most, it is among the languages that Tanzanians know best. Additionally it is to an increasing extent becoming peoples’ first language.
According to Mwinsheikhe (2003) a vernacular language is the mother tongue for most Tanzanians, with Kiswahili as their second language and English as their third. However, an increasing part of Tanzanians speak Kiswahili as their first language. The Kiswahili
newspapers and magazines for instance, have much wider circulation than those published in English.
Medium of instruction
Mkwizu (2003) defines “medium of instruction” as the language that is used in the process of teaching and learning. She describes it as a tool for transferring skills and knowledge. She draws on the work of Rubanza who has formulated that a language that qualifies as a medium of instruction is one that both teachers and learners understand well. Furthermore, it is a language which enables students to apply the knowledge and skills they have acquired and to think critically and creatively.
Code-switching
Code switching is described as an active and creative process where material from two languages is incorporated in communication. It involves momentary, rapid switching from one language to another. The change may occur many times during a single conversation, and also within single sentences (Dulay, Burt and Krashen 1982).
According to Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir (2003) the concept of code-switching is
sometimes used interchangeably with code-mixing. Muriel Saville-Troike firstly defines the word code as simply meaning different languages. According to Saville-Troike code-
switching refers to a change in languages within a single speech event. Code-switching is understood as an intersentential change, meaning that the switch in languages takes place between sentences. Code-mixing on the other hand refers to an intrasentential change, which implies that the language switch takes place within the same sentence (Saville-Troike, 1989).
Globalisation
Globalisation is a concept that to a high degree is entangled in the issue of language of instruction in Africa. It is a process that holds different meanings for different people. To some, globalisation is almost synonymous with development, and holds great promises for the future of those who do not “lag behind”(Kadeghe, 2003; UDSM, 1999; Mongula, 2005, in the
Citizen). Others perceive the ongoing process of globalisation as a major catalyst of further marginalisation of the already marginalised through the powers of the liberal market (Thiong’o, 2005; Brock-Utne, 2000).
The following definition of globalisation is proposed by Giddens:
Globalisation can … be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This is a dialectical process because such local happenings may move in an obverse direction from the very distanciated relations that shape them. Local transformation is as much a part of globalisation as the lateral extension of social connections across time and space. (Giddens, 1990:64)
The Kenyan writer, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2005) describes the process of globalisation from a more critical perspective. He asserts that although the process is not necessarily a new historical phenomenon, it is currently moving with ferocious velocity. The great speed and sophistication of information technologies accelerate the economic integration of the globe, facilitating for instance the management of global enterprises from a single centre, and the instant movement of capital across borders. He does not see this process as one which is purely economic, however. He points out that the social integration of the world is also hastened, shaping the globe in the image of the consuming west. Thiong’o argues that at the heart of the globalisation process are forces of fundamentalism. The fundamentalism of the process lies in the assertion that there is only one way of organising reality, which is the one offered to developing countries by organisations such as the World Bank and IMF.
The knowledge and information shared in a global neighbourhood result in a global intellectual community. And yet what emerges from this global neighbourhood is not equality, fraternity, sisterhood, liberty… No, this neighbourhood hosts hostile camps (Thiong’o, 2005:155).
In her key-note speech at the 36th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Zaline Makini Roy-Campbell offered a different perspective on globalisation as she addressed African professors teaching African languages in the USA:
Your work here in the USA is a manifestation of the interest in African languages outside of the African continent. This is part of globalization, spreading the culture of Africa to other parts of the world. Not only are African languages being taught in the United States of America, but also in European countries and Japan. With the development and expansion of the internet, there has been increased access to African
resources and other information in and on African languages, including an Ethnologue of African languages, which provides information on all the languages of the various African countries. This wealth of information on and interest in African languages, outside of the African continent, is another manifestation of globalization.
African languages have been inserted on the world stage (Roy-Campbell, 2006:2).
Roy-Campbell reminds us that globalisation also involves the spreading of African culture and languages, thus Africa is not only merely a recipient of Western influence in the process of globalisation (Roy-Campbell, 2006).
Development
The concept of development employed in this study is based on that of the Cameroonian scholar Chumbow. He argues that the concept of development needs to be differentiated from growth, as development cannot be measured merely in economic terms like gross national product or per capita income. In his view there has been growth, however without
development in Africa. He identifies several factors which impede development efforts in Africa, such as lack of democratic regimes, poor or inadequate exploitation of natural and human resources, famine and insufficiency of industry. Amongst these he believes that illiteracy and ignorance could be the most important because the majority of the other factors can be traced back to result from these (Chumbow, 2005).
Chumbow criticises the definitions of development formulated by the UN of underscoring the social well-being of the citizenry in terms of the minimum standard of living, including health, shelter food security life expectancy, education work and so forth. He defines national development as:
The nation’s human resources acting on its natural resources to produce goods (tangible and intangible) in order to improve the condition of the average citizen of the nation-state (Chumbow, 2005:167).
According to Chumbow’s concept of development, human resources are central to any genuine national development endeavour. He argues that because education and training is crucial to development it follows that the language of instruction is also crucial (Chumbow, 2005).
Major institutions concerned with development, such as the World Bank and UNESCO, gives on the other hand little attention to the role of language in development. It is mentioned in the
2006 Global Monitoring Report on Education For All, that early learning is most effective in the mother tongue, but with regards to post primary education, language of instruction is not mentioned (UNESCO, 2006). The 2007 World Bank Development Report was published in September 2006. The document is entitled “Development and the next generation” and it mainly focuses on capacity building, and expansion of human resources amongst youth.
Tanzania and other Sub-Sahara African countries are advised to follow the growth path of Asian countries. The problems caused by foreign media in the education systems of the African countries are however not mentioned, in spite of the fact that the Asian countries long ago started using their own languages (World Bank, 2006). Some scholars have pointed out that this may be at least part of the explanation for the different “growth paths” experienced by Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries (Prah, 2005; Qorro, 2004; Brock-Utne 2000).
Brock-Utne argues that the current language in education policies in Tanzania in fact is the opposite of development and poverty alleviation (Brock-Utne, 2007).
UNESCO held the Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa, in Harare from 17-21 March 1997, which resulted in the Harare Declaration and its ambitious Plan of Action. The conference involved an expert meeting of language specialists attending as governmental experts. They were supposed to formulate recommendations, do preparatory work for, and advise relevant government ministers from their countries who were also attending the same conference. In the report on the expert meeting the role of language in development is acknowledged in these words:
The delegates laid particular emphasis on the need for using African languages to accelerate the process of development, considering the fact that, in the majority of African states, less than 20 percent of the population has mastered the former colonial language. The Experts agreed that the African languages constituted a key factor in African economic, social, cultural and political development. Therefore, everything must be done to allow these languages to be used effectively within the democratic process. In this respect, African languages should not be confined to the areas of oral communication, literacy and primary school teaching, but they should also play an important role in other areas of development (UNESCO, 2006:29).
Addressing the conference participants, Mrs L. Arizpe, who is the Assistant Director General, Sector of Culture, representing the Director-General of UNESCO assured the conference participants that UNESCO would shoulder efforts to implement the resolves of this
conference, which was to be considered a milestone, rather than just another conference on the list (UNESCO, 2006).
Little action has followed though, and in the World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action and Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development in Higher Education, which was published one year later, and still guides the efforts of UNESCO in higher education, neither the conference nor its topic is mentioned (UNESCO, 1998).
Entailed in the concept of development is the process of democratisation. A functioning democracy requires the active participation of the citizenry. To be an active, participating citizen, however, is dependent on a system of education that mirrors democratic values and teaches the skills needed to participate in a democracy (Biseth, 2005). In “Democracy and Education” (1997), John Dewey describes the ideal democratic society by identifying two indicators which can be used to measure the value of a particular social life form. These two indicators are the extent to which the interests of the group are shared by all the members of the group, and the extent to which the group freely and fully interacts with other groups. He also states that an unwanted society is one that internally and externally puts up barriers to free communication of experiences. To meet the above mentioned requirements Dewey proclaims that schools must be efficient in such a way that they in reality and not just in words diminish the effects of economical differences. According to Dewey this view is tied to the very concept of education as something which liberates the individuals’ abilities, and gives it a progressive attitude toward social purposes (Dewey, 1997).
The Tanzanian government also assign education an imperative role in the process of
development, without mentioning the problems caused by the language used in post primary education (URT, 2000; URT, 1999; URT, 1998).
2.2 Theories guiding the study
I have employed what I suppose one would call an eclectic theoretical approach in this study.
I have done so because of the complexity of the subject, which involves several different factors associated with various theory, and research branches from sometimes altogether different subjects. This study leans on works on the philosophy, sociology and psychology of education and language, In particular Education for Self- Reliance, Problem-Posing Education and theories on learning and teaching.
2.2.1 Education for Self -Reliance
The first president of independent Tanzania, Julius Nyerere formulated his own philosophy of education, for Tanzania, which he called “Education for self-reliance” (Nyerere, 1968). His philosophy has had a great impact on the Tanzanian education system, still guiding the curriculum and way of teaching (Mkwizu, 2003). The purpose of education is at the core of this philosophy. He argues that only when one is clear abut the type of society one desires is it possible to create an educational system able to serve the goals of the society. He points out that the Tanzanian society envisaged in The Arusha Declaration and the five-year
development plan is a socialist society. He is highly critical of the inherited colonial education because it is modelled on the British system, which was motivated by an aim to inculcate the values of the colonial society.
In addition to preparing young people for the work the society will depend on them to do in the future, Nyerere emphasises another important task for education:
It has also to prepare people for their responsibilities as free workers and citizens in a free and democratic society, albeit a largely rural society. They have to be able to think for themselves, to make judgements on all the issues affecting them; they have to be able to interpret the decisions made by through the democratic institutions of our society (…) The education provided must therefore encourage the development in each citizen of three things: an inquiring mind; an ability to learn from what others do, and reject or adapt it to his own needs; and a basic confidence in his own position as a free and equal member of society,..(Nyerere, 1968:52-53).
Nyerere states that the educational system of Tanzania would not be serving the interests of a democratic socialist society if it tried to stop people from thinking about the teachings,
policies or ideas of the leaders, either past or present. Only free people conscious of their worth and their equality can build a free society. Moreover, he underlines that the education provided by Tanzania for the students of Tanzania must serve the purposes of Tanzania. It must encourage the development of a proud, independent and free citizenry which relies upon itself for its own development. Nyerere states in “Education for self-reliance” that it is wrong if the education system of Tanzania even contributes to the continuation of the inequalities and privileges that still exist in their society, because of their inheritance (Nyerere, 1968).
Nyerere maintained throughout his lifetime that tertiary education should serve the poor. In
improvements in the conditions of the mass of the people. He argued that the university should have an activist role in promoting development and fighting all forms of prejudice.
He articulated this view when he inaugurated the University of East Africa in 1963:
..For let us be quite clear; the University has not been established purely for prestige purposes. It has a very definite role to play in development in this area, and to this effectively it must be in, and of, the community it has been established to serve.
And even more clearly a year later, at the opening of the University College Campus in Dar es Salaam:
This sort of expenditure is only justified in the circumstances of our country if one condition is fulfilled. The expenditure must lead to an increase in the wealth of this United Republic, and it must contribute to the raising of the standards of living of the mass of the people of this Union.
2.2.2 Problem-posing education
I will now turn to the thoughts of the Brazilian philosopher, Paulo Freire. In similar vein with Nyerere, he developed a philosophy on education based on the aim of liberating and
empowering the people of his country. In “Pedagogy of the oppressed”, Paulo Freire (1996) makes a distinction between the banking concept of education and the problem-posing concept of education. Freire sees the banking concept of education as nothing less than an instrument of oppression, as opposed to problem-posing education on the other hand, which he believes to be an instrument of liberation.
An important aspect of the banking concept of education is that the students are viewed as empty vessels, or containers which are to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. Freire argues that this view implies projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, which he deems to be characteristic of the ideology of oppression, and negates education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. Prevalent in this concept of education is that it is very much based on narration. Freire argues that the relationship between teacher and students subsequently becomes one in which the teacher is the narrating subject, and the students are the patient listening objects. Through this process Freire states that the content tends to become lifeless and petrified. Moreover, the narration leads the students to memorise mechanically the
narrated content. Thus, education itself becomes an act of depositing, in which the students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Consequently, instead of communicating, the teacher makes deposits, which the students patiently memorize and repeat (Freire, 1996).
According to Freire the following attitudes and practices are key features of the banking concept of education and mirror an oppressive society as a whole:
• The teacher teaches and the students are taught;
• The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing;
• The teacher thinks and the students are taught about;
• The teacher talks and the students listen;
• The teacher discipline and the students are disciplined;
• The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply;
• The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher;
• The teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it;
• The teacher confuses the authority, which she and he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students;
• The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
The alternative to the banking concept of education proposed by Freire is the problem-posing concept of education. He maintains that only through communication can human life hold meaning. Consequently, the educational goal of deposit-making must be replaced by the posing of the problems of human beings and their relations with the world. Furthermore, one must adopt a concept of men and women as conscious beings, and also of consciousness itself as consciousness intent upon the world. Students, as they are increasingly confronted with problems relating to themselves in the world and with the world, will feel increasingly
challenged and obliged to respond to that challenge. Because they apprehend the challenge as interrelated to other problems within a total context, not as a mere theoretical questions, the resulting comprehension tends to be increasingly critical, and thus constantly less alienated.
To acquire literacy is more than to psychologically and mechanically [obtain] reading and writing techniques. It is to dominate these techniques in terms of consciousness;
to understand what one reads and to write what one understands; it is to communicate graphically. Acquiring literacy does not involve memorizing sentences, word or syllables- lifeless objects unconnected to an existential universe- but rather an attitude of creation and re-creation, a self- transformation producing a stance of intervention in one’s context (Freire, 1974:48).
Freire states that education as an act of freedom denies that man is abstract, isolated
independent and unattached to the world. It also denies that the world exists as a reality apart from people. Through problem-posing education, people develop their power to perceive critically the way they exist in the world in which they find themselves; they come to see the world as a reality in process, in transformation and not as a static reality. As opposed to banking education, problem- posing education bases itself on creativity and stimulates true reflection and action upon reality (Freire, 1996).
The use of a foreign language for teaching and learning is very likely to lead to decreased student participation, thus increase the prevalence of banking concept of education and leave less room for dialogue. Several studies indicate that student participation suffers due to the use of English in the classrooms in Tanzania (Brock-Utne and Halmarsdottir 2003; Mkwizu, 2003; Malekela, 2003).
2.2.3 Language and social reproduction
According to Bourdieu (1996), all forms of linguistic interaction have an implicit potential for abuse of power. This potential is congruent with the extent to which the interaction involves agents of dissimilar positions according to the distribution of the relevant forms of capital.
Bourdieu argues that each and every act of speech or verbal language is a mergence of circumstances. It can be described as the meeting of a linguistic habitus and a linguistic market. In other words this means that on the one hand we have a system of socially constructed dispositions, such as an individual’s tendency to express him or herself in a certain manner. On the other hand we have a system of symbolic power relations, which emerges through a system of specific sanctions and censorship mechanisms which affects the price or value of a linguistic product (Bourdieu, 1995). It appears that on the linguistic market in Tanzania the linguistic habitus associated with competence in the English language is valued highest.
Language is further characterised as an instrument of symbolic violence through which dominant groups enforce their own specific way of expressing themselves over and against subordinate groups (Bourdieu, 1996; Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977). Applied to the situation in the school system in post-colonial Tanzania it is not merely talk about a certain dialect, but a foreign language, which is being imposed upon the subordinate groups, in particular
students, both at secondary and tertiary educational levels.
Basil Bernstein (1971) asserts that students’ educability is closely linked with the form of communication into which they have been socialised, and the form of communication represented by the school system. If the form of communication legitimised by the
educational institution differs from the form of communication the student has been socialised into, a major problem of educability may be expected. Employing his term, one can argue that the English medium of instruction constitutes a problem of educability for the majority of the Tanzanian people, to which English is less accessible than to the well-of minority (Senkoro, 2004).
2.3 What can research and pedagogical theory tell us about teaching and learning foreign languages?
In the ongoing Tanzanian debate concerning language of instruction in post-primary
education, the arguments raised in favour of retaining the English medium are very often in reality reasons why it is important for young Tanzanians to become competent in English. In this respect it is important to point out that the alternative offered by the proponents of the Kiswahili medium, is that English is taught as a subject, as opposed to leaving to die.
Nevertheless, public awareness remains low on this point in spite of years of endless debating and research indicating that the English medium does not necessarily lead to competence in the English language (Qorro 2004).
2.3.1 Teaching of English To Speakers of other Languages (TESOL)
A monolingual methodology is organically linked with linguists disregard of dominated languages, concepts and ways of thinking. It is highly functional in inducing a colonised consciousness (Phillipson, 1992:187).
Robert Phillipson is a British socio-linguist and researcher. He argues that the principles guiding the teaching of English play an essential role in English linguistic imperialism (Phillipson, 1992; 1999). According to Phillipson, the following key tenets have evolved in the English teaching profession (TESOL), and continue to influence the education sector throughout the former British Colonies in Africa:
• English is best taught monolingually
• The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker
• The earlier English is introduced, the better the results
• The more English is taught, the better the results
• If other languages are used much, standards of English will drop
Phillipson points out that research indicates that the tenets above are all false. Therefore he thinks it more appropriate to refer to them as the false tenets of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). He has labelled them as:
• The monolingual fallacy
• The native speaker fallacy
• The early start fallacy
• The maximum exposure fallacy
• The subtractive fallacy
Phillipson (1992, 1999) highlights that these tenets are inconsistent with what we have learned from studies about cognitive development, and the role of the mother tongue (L1) in the learning of second or foreign languages (L2). He points out that research has made us aware that cognitive development in L1 is significant for effective L2 learning. Leaning on the results of several studies Phillipson states that:
failure to provide educational conditions for the development of cognitive-academic proficiency in L1 as well as initial literacy the L1 may invalidate efforts to build up such skills in L2 (Phillipson,1992:191).
According to Paolu Freire a foreign subject such as English imposed upon the learner for studying another subject is a violation of the structure of thinking (Freire, 1985).
In “Thought and language” Vygotsky points to the important role of the native language in successful learning of a foreign language in these words:
Success in learning a foreign language is contingent on a certain degree of maturity in the native language. The child can transfer to the new language the system of meanings he already possesses in his own. The reverse is also true- a foreign language facilitates mastering the higher forms of a native language. The child learns to his native language as one particular system among many, to view phenomena under more general categories, and this leads to awareness of his linguistic operations (Vygotsky, 1962:110).
In a review of research data on bilingual education, Cummins (2000) concludes that studies show that within a bilingual program, instructional time can be focused on developing students’ literacy skills in their primary language without adverse effect on the development of their literacy skills in English. Furthermore, the relationship between first and second language literacy skills suggests that effective development of the students’ literacy skills in their first language can provide a conceptual foundation for long-term growth in English literacy skills. He points out that this does not however imply that transfer of literacy and academic language knowledge will happen automatically; there is usually also need for formal instruction in the target language to realize the benefits of cross-linguistic transfer.
It seems that comprehension is a factor in learning which can not be overlooked, in a learning process.
In a study on foreign language teaching from Sweden, it was found that a group of students which were provided with explanations in their own language excelled in learning English, compared to a group of students taught solely through the English medium. These findings indicate that even when the goal is to learn English, the process is facilitated by providing learners with explanations in the language the learners understand best. Comprehension of the topic also seems to play a role in the process of learning a new language. Natural
communication appears to be essential in developing speaking fluency. It is however deemed to be ineffective if it is about something abstract. Unless the learner can piece together the meaning of what is being said, learning will proceed at a low rate (Levin, 1972).
