The value component

The value component refers to the reasons individuals have for engaging in a task (or not), and their motivational potential is partly governed by what people consider important (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). Eccles and Wigfield used the term subjective task values to signify that these beliefs are individuals’ perceptions of their own values (Schunk, et al., 2008; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). They describe four components of subjective values, and each component can affect behaviour.

Attainment value is related to the importance of doing well at a task, and more broadly, it deals with a person’s identity or a person’s actual or ideal self-schema. Eccles et al. (2007) argued that one of the motivational components of engaging in a task is confirmation or disconfirmation of salient aspects of one’s self-schema, such as body image or self-worth. A study by Ball, Crawford, & Owen (2000) demonstrated that feeling fat explained the lower rate of physical activity, particularly among women. With regard to diabetes management, it may be suggested that, when self-management behaviours are considered as important and, in addition, confirm salient aspects of one’s self-schema, the motivation for self-management may increase. By contrast, when diabetes management activities conflict with the self-schema of people with type 2 diabetes, their motivation for such activities may decrease.

The second component, intrinsic value, refers to the enjoyment one gains from carrying out a task. This component of value is similar to the construct of intrinsic motivation as defined by, for instance, Ryan and Deci (2000). According to Wigfield and Eccles (1992), when a task has high interest value, individuals will be more engaged in that task,

Theoretical framework

persist longer, and be more intrinsically motivated to do the task. On the basis of these considerations, it may be suggested that when an individual with type 2 diabetes self-manages primarily for intrinsic reasons, he/she will be more motivated to perform these behaviours.

Research on physical activity has demonstrated that intrinsic motives such as enjoyment are positively associated with more physical activity (Dacey, Baltzell, & Zaichkowsky, 2008; Ferrand, et al., 2008).

The third component, utility value, is related to current and future goals and captures more “extrinsic” reasons for engaging in a task (Wigfield

& Eccles, 1992). Wigfield and Eccles (1992) maintain that people pursue some tasks because those tasks are important for their goals, even if the people are not interested in that task for its own sake. For instance, many people with type 2 diabetes follow a healthful diet because they want to prevent long-term complications, or they exercise because their doctor expects them to do so. The latter example of utility value is similar to the “extrinsic” reason for doing a task presented by Ryan and Deci (2000).

The fourth and final component is cost, which is characterised as the negative aspects of engaging in an activity. Cost is influenced by many factors such as fear of failure and anxiety (Eccles, 2009). In this thesis, the cost component will be referred to as negative values related to management behaviours. The most negative aspects of the self-management regime reported by people with diabetes were inappropriate food offered by others, negative physical reactions, financial resources and lack of information and social support (Pun, et al., 2009). Moreover, the cost component implies that when individuals engage in one task, they cannot usually engage in another task at the same time (Eccles, 2009). Earlier studies have demonstrated that the demands for self-management activities in order to achieve adequate blood glucose control compete with other interests or values (Hörnsten, Sandstrom, & Lundman, 2004; Paterson, et al., 1998).

In summary, these four value components have been demonstrated to be empirically distinct from one another and from the expectancy component (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995). However, it is suggested that there is a link between expectancies and values that causes a tendency

Theoretical framework

in people to value those activities in which they think they will do well, and vice versa. With regard to diabetes management, it can be assumed that individuals with a stronger belief in their ability to engage in diabetes management behaviours also value performing these activities.

On the other hand, if diabetes management activities are perceived as too costly, the individual’s belief in diabetes management activities may decrease. However, findings from expectancy-value research have found that when both expectancies and values are used to predict an achievement, expectancies are significant predictors, but values are not significant predictors. By contrast, research has found, for instance, that in terms of intentions to take a future course and actual engage in those, values are better predictors then expectancies (Meece, Wigfield, &

Eccles, 1990; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992).

2.2.3.1 Values and goals

It is necessary to describe the relationship between values and goals, because both concern the purpose or aim of individuals when engaging in different activities (Locke, 2002; Wigfield & Eccles, 2002).

According to Wigfield and Eccles (2002) and Locke (2002), values are similar to goals; however, goals are usually considered more specific and change more frequently than values, which also apply to those goals related to diabetes self-management behaviour concerning diet and exercise. At the same time, more general life goals are often related to values (Boekaerts, de Koning, & Vedder, 2006), such as health and longevity, belonging to a fellowship, and self-determination. Yet in most real-life situations, people have several different goals or values that they intend to pursue simultaneously. For instance, people may want to enjoy culinary delights while also wanting a slim figure.

Because people seldom desire one thing at a time, and the process of goal or value attainment includes constantly prioritizing among the many goals that a person wishes to pursue, peoples’ goals related to diabetes management cannot be considered in isolation but in relationship to other important life values, such as work and belonging to a fellowship. Surprisingly few studies have considered the concurrent influence of multiple values (e.g., work and diabetes management) on diabetes management behaviours and how individuals’ motivations for diabetes management were influenced

Theoretical framework

when life values competed with other necessary activities for adequate metabolic control. Morrow, Haidet, Skinner, and Naik (2008) found that among older people with type 2 diabetes, life and health values and other goals related to self-care practices often complemented each other.

Locke (2002) has posited that for a goal to be important, it must be tied to an important value. Fishbach, Friedman and Kruglanski (2003) also emphasised that goals are more likely to be accomplished when they are in harmony with other goals and values. For instance, the goals of attaining adequate metabolic control and taking part in the New York marathon may facilitate each other. On the other hand, the goal of attaining adequate metabolic control can easily conflict with the preference for tasty but unhealthy food. Based on this understanding, it may be suggested that values that are in accordance with the goals of attaining adequate metabolic control may positively influence motivation for self-management among people with type 2 diabetes. On the other hand, values can easily conflict with the preference for adequate metabolic control which, in turn, may reduce motivation for diabetes self-management. The question of how people deal with goal conflict is a well-researched area within social psychology (Hofer &

Peetsma, 2005), and several theoretical perspectives have been used to examine motivational- or goal conflicts (e.g., Shah & Kruglanski, 2002;

Deci & Ryan, 2000; Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003).

However, as far as has been seen, motivation theory related to chronic illness rarely addresses peoples’ preferences for different values and how life values correspond or conflict with their daily life with the disease. It would, therefore, be worthwhile to investigate how the values of people with type 2 diabetes life correspond or conflict with their goals of attaining adequate metabolic control.