This hand out on power is intended to support you in your discussion and make you aware of different types of power and ways of exercising power. You are not meant to close read it and remember it, only to read through the text for a better understanding and reference.
Defining power:
Power is present in all we do and in all our relationships. Every time we interact with another person, there is power involved. We use power to get our way, and to make others do as we wish even when they do not want to in the first place. This may initially sound exclusively negative. However, power use is not necessarily wrong or bad, it may be neutral, and it may be used for something good, like empowering others and making them feel important.
Consequently, it all depends on why power is used and how power is used. With all these aspects, it is difficult to agree on one clear definition of power. Here is what Gilbert Fairholm has said about defining power:
There is little agreement about what power is, where or when the individual gets it, or how it is used successfully. It is clear that individual personality, as well as control over material and psychological resources, is part of power use. What is also clear is that power is pervasive8, interesting, somewhat frightening, and central to success in operating in organizational settings9 (2009, p. 4).
Fairholm also made the following list, a little re-phrased for an easier understanding:
Power...
involves planned action, not random action
is a way to get a desired result, to get your way
is measured and compared in terms of how successful it was; if you manage to win a whole group over you have much power, if you only manage to convince two of the 15, you have less power.
happens in relationships where one is somehow dependent on the other
is shown through use, not possession; you cannot have power without using it
is situational; what is efficient in one situation or with one person may not be a success in another situation or with another person
8 Gjennomtrengende, altså som har kraft til å skape endring
9 For å ha suksess i en organisasjon – her menes alt som er eller ligner en organisasjon, en gruppe mennesker som jobber sammen mot et eller flere felles mål.
is based on disagreement or opposition; it is only used when people disagree in the first place. If they agree, power use is not necessary (2009, p. 5)
Types of power:
Fairholm has made a table (2009, p. 12) which shows the different types of power and what these types of power are based on (from using much (top) to using a little force (bottom))
“A basic Impact Power Model”
BASE OF COMPLIANCE10 _________________ARCHETYPICAL POWER FORMS
Coercion11 Force
│ │
│ Authority
│ │
│ Manipulation
to │
│ Threat/Promise
│ │
│ Persuasion12
│ │
consent13 Influence14
So, here we see that power comes in different forms, the most clear power use, force, may include violence and severe pressure, whereas the use of influence is perhaps not noticed at all. Suddenly you find that you have said yes to something you originally did not want to, or that goes slightly against your principles, but you cannot say specifically what caused you to change your mind. Most likely someone used their charm on you to influence you in favour of their suggestion. This is also power use. Sometimes we change our mind because we have been convinced it is the right and logical thing to do. This is called voluntary consent, which means giving in willingly. You can probably list a number of situations in which you have tried to influence and convince your parents to let you do something they have said no to. In
10 Å gi etter for andres maktutøvelse
11Å presse noen til å gjøre som du vil
12 Overtale noen
13 Å være enig
14 Påvirke noen
the process you probably tried several of these! In short, we use power on others and they use power on us.
Forms of power:
I have arranged the six different forms from Fairholm’s model (2009, pp.16-21) into a table:
Forms About Examples / explanation
Force: Use of physical or biological force to get a desired result or prevent a result. Very efficient – people often respond quickly and let us control their behaviour. Easy to see when it is used. The most direct form:
violence.
Happens when someone obeys because they want to avoid problems and pain.
Similar to force, but the target still has a real choice What he does is decided by how much he wants to avoid the threat, or how badly he wants what is promised. hidden and therefore it is difficult to fight it. The key is to hide the real intent and to influence the person’s behaviour indirectly. The target does not react because he does not know what is going on, and may even feel he has freedom and choice. Often used in combination with dialogue, negotiating, on arguments in specific situations. It depends on the
Influence Affecting others’ behaviour without threatening or manipulating. Your
List of some power tactics:
Below follows a list of tactics used when exercising power, as identified by Fairholm (2009, p. 59):
Deciding what will be discussed; controlling the agenda
Keeping communication unclear; what is said may be understood in many ways and thus it is difficult to go against it
Using your charisma means using the respect and feelings others have for your character traits to affect their decisions
Forming coalitions; means securing allies
Teaching/developing others to do things (assistant!) and thereby increasing our own power.
Using outside experts; means we do not have to get involved directly to get a result
Building a favourable image of ourselves; means making ourselves look good/smart/powerful etc. in the eyes of others
Placing others in debt to us so they will do as we like.
Organisational placement Placing our allies in central positions and our opponents out on the side line
Quid pro quo/Negotiating trade-offs; I will scratch your back if you…
Rationalization; changing the reality (lie or leave out details) to fit your plans
Distributing/giving resources to people in ways that will give us more power
Rewarding or punishing people to win their support
Using a surrogate/ someone else to carry out the job because they are more popular and/or will be more successful your way, or they will be unpopular and not you.
Training and orienting Transmitting knowledge, skills, values, or specific behaviours to others to instil our goals, values, philosophy, or desired behaviours in them.
Reasons for power use
Why do people use power? There are many reasons why, everything from the fun of it to the fact that it helps define you as an individual. Some people see power as a way to get what they want, and to others it is just enjoyable to see what power can do. Here are some reasons identified by Fairholm (2009, p 66):
7. to receive help
8. to get benefits (fordeler) from the target of power 9. to help making the target’s perform better
10. to cause change to happen 11. for the fun of it
12. to meet ego needs (related to feelings) Works cited:
Fairholm, Gilbert. Organizational Power Politics: Tactics in Organizational Leadership, 2nd ed., Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2009.Print.