2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 Why literature?
Literature is an essential part of the English subject as it both can delight and motivate the learner of EFL. The literary texts, well chosen, clue learners into other cultures and help them to make meaning from language (Lazar 2005). By entering the world and the life of the fictional character, we might be able to take on perspectives of the other that are different from our own. Literature presents the reader with the problems or the difficult choices of another. Identification and involvement are two central aspects of the literary reading experience. The protagonist of a literary text might inhabit other values than the ones of the reader, and she3 might even make choices the reader neither can understand nor accept. In this way, the reader’s own experiences, feelings and emotions face those of the protagonist or other characters. Rosenblatt (1978) states that the new experience, gained through the reading experience, now is challenging the reader’s pre-assumptions. “[The reader] may be stimulated to clarify his own values, his own prior sense of the world and its possibilities.” (Rosenblatt 1978: 145). Personal involvement with ‘the other’ can strengthen the identity of the reader;
through understanding others, self-understanding can be strengthened (Hellesnes 1988). On the other hand, literary texts may also be investigated by a close examination of the
connections between idea and form, such as meter and rhyme in poetry, for example. The sections 2.4 and 2.5 explains he different approaches to literature in more detail.
Why is literature important in foreign language learning? First, the literary text is authentic.
Fenner (2001) refers to Little, Dewitt & Singleton (1989) who explicate this authenticity in the following way: “An authentic text is created to fulfil some purpose in the language community in which it was produced” (Fenner 2001: 23). Literary texts - when of good quality - employ a rich and metaphorical language enhancing learners’ involvement with the texts, allowing them to experience the multiplicity of meaning. Furthermore, literature is open. One of the positive consequences of this openness is that there are no correct or
3 In this thesis I will refer to the reader by the pronoun ‘she’, but this is not to say that the reader necessarily is
female – this is done mainly for convenience reasons.
9 incorrect answers to how to fill these open spaces, allowing for a wide range of possibilities.
According to Iser (1978), the literary text challenges the reader by “not telling it all”, and in that way open up for the reader’s interpretation. The outcome of this challenge will then form the basis of the reader’s understanding of the text and the reading.
Another important aspect of reading literature has implications for identity making and self-awareness. Young learners are in a phase of great development both physically and mentally, and in the centre of this development is establishment of identity. Hoff (2013: 28-32) shows how the reading of literature and involvement with fictional texts can “play a significant role in the development of an individual’s identity” and furthermore that it can “have a profound impact on the learners’ own perception of themselves and how they view the world around them (Hoff 2013: 28). Hoff uses the terms ‘Self’ and ‘Other’ to describe the relationship between the learners’ identities and the target language users’ identities, and the personal growth which might be the outcome of this relationship (Hoff, 2013: 28).
The adolescent reader is most certainly interested in identifying with the characters and their problems (Appleyard 1991) and when she is interpreting a literary text, the reader is
interpreting herself (Ricoeur 1992). Through encounters with literary texts, the young reader can find meaning in her own existence as well. The literary text as an ‘artefact’ of the foreign culture provides the mirror in which they can see themselves reflected; it provides an outside to their inside (Fenner 2000: 149).
An important aspect of adolescents’ relationship to reading and involvement with a story is realism; a story will most likely be praised for being realistic or “true”. Appleyard (1991: 107) reminds us that: “the most common critical yardstick that a group of ninth and tenth graders applied to stories they read was whether or not they were ‘true to life’”. A story can also be realistic for a teenager if she easily can imagine similar situations as the ones narrated in the text.
10 2.2 Literature and the National Curriculum
2.2.1 Literature in the Core Curriculum of LK06
The Core Curriculum4 of LK06 presents literature as a catalyst for creative aspects of human nature. More specifically, it is regarded as an essential part of our “cultural tradition” which is “mediated by body and mind, embedded in arts and crafts, in language and literature, in theatre, song, music, dance and athletics” (LK06, Core Curriculum, English version: 13).
Literature is, as expressed here, a highly central value in our national curriculum. Moreover, it is stated that:
Pupils must develop an appreciation for beauty both in meeting artistic expression and by exploring and unfolding their own creative powers. […] Even more, a confrontation with creative art can wrench us out of our habitual modes of thought, challenge our opinions and provide experiences that spur us to re-examine prevailing conceptions and break with conventional wisdom and customary modes. (LK06, Core Curriculum, English version: 13)
Not only must the learners develop an appreciation for the great work of others, but also be able to explore own creative powers, for example through literature, a creative art supposed to provide the learners with new ideas and thoughts that challenges their current conceptions.
This relates to our development as human beings and Bildung5, the lifelong process of
developing abilities to reflect upon own actions and behaviour in an interplay with others. The summary of the Core Curriculum underscores that education does in fact have a number of seemingly contradictory aims, and that it shall “provide powerful exposure to the greatest achievements in literature and art, in work, adventure and research, and give each individual the opportunity to discover and develop the germs that lie in his or her own powers.” (LK06, Core Curriculum, English version: 40).
2.2.2 Literature in the English subject curriculum
The English subject curriculum of LK06 says the following about literature in the account of the subject’s main objectives:
4 This part of the current national curriculum, LK06, has been carried over from the former curriculum, The Norwegian Curriculum for the 10-year compulsory school, L97.
5Bildung (Ger.) is what school can offer, a combination of knowledge, ways of thinking, ways of understanding and relating to other people and ways of understanding oneself. Thus, Bildung provides the key to master and understand the culture. The cultural codes in society are based upon social values, which will be part of context for any situation where language is used (Pieper, Aase, Fleming, Sâmihăian, 2007)
11 Literary texts in English can instil a lifelong joy of reading and a deeper understanding of others and of oneself. Oral, written and digital texts, films, music and other cultural forms of expression can further inspire personal expressions and creativity. (LK06, English subject curriculum, English version: 2)
Literature is explicitly connected to the following two main subject areas:
“Written communication”:
The main subject area includes reading a variety of different texts in English to stimulate the joy of reading, to experience greater understanding and to acquire knowledge. This involves reading a large quantity of literature to promote language understanding and competence in the use of text. Reading different types of texts can lay the foundation for personal growth, maturation and creativity and provide the inspiration necessary to create texts. (LK06, English subject curriculum, English version: 3)
“Culture, society and literature”:
The main subject area Culture, society and literature focuses on cultural understanding in a broad sense.
It is based on the English-speaking countries and covers key topics connected to social issues, literature and other cultural expressions. The main subject area involves working with and discussing expository texts, literary texts and cultural forms of expression from different media. This is essential to develop knowledge about, understanding of and respect for the lives and cultures of other people. (LK06, English subject curriculum, English version: 3).
Thus, the subject curriculum enhances the aspects of joy, understanding and acquirement of knowledge as important in relation to reading literature. Furthermore, literature has a specific purpose when it comes to cultural understanding “in a broad sense”; development of
understanding and respect for other people and their cultures. This is the core of intercultural competence, which is important in order to communicate about literary topics. Like the Core Curriculum (2.2.1), the English subject curriculum also emphasizes personal development objectives, such as personal growth, maturation and creativity. Still, it may be difficult for teachers to determine how literature should be worked with in accordance with the
curriculum. The focus is mainly on what the reading of literature comprises in this learning context, and what this can lead to for the learners, but without saying how. The choices of how to approach literature in the EFL classroom seemingly rely heavily on the teachers and the textbooks. However, the list of basic skills on page 5 in the English subject curriculum describes what reading in English is and what this comprises:
“Being able to read” in English means the ability to create meaning by reading different types of texts.
It means […] to understand, reflect on and acquire insight and knowledge across cultural borders and within specific fields of study. This further involves preparing and working with reading English texts for different reasons and of varying lengths and complexities. […] Furthermore, it involves reading English texts fluently and to understand, explore, discuss, learn from and to reflect upon different types of information. (LK06, English subject curriculum, English version: 5).
As stated here, reading, and the reading of literature in particular, is more than decoding and conveyance of word and text meaning. The ways in which reading is described here do not leave much for the reading of literature with focus on enjoyment and exploration of meaning,
12 but quite on the contrary it can be argued that the curriculum describes reading of texts in English as an efferent6 activity. It is noteworthy that the phrase “create meaning” is used rather than “find meaning”. Since meaning is described as something to be created, this might open up for an understanding where reading also can be a creative process, but this is not further elaborated on in this part of the curriculum or in any other place in the subject curriculum. Quite clearly there is a difference in how to read a factual text versus a literary text, and it can be a challenging task to interpret how the literary texts should be worked with in the English subject. The next section will discuss this aspect further.
The specific subject curriculum for pupils in their first year of upper secondary school (vg1, general studies’ programme) states that pupils are supposed to: “discuss and elaborate on different types of English language literary texts from different parts of the world”. This phrase must be taken into consideration and placed into the bigger picture of literature as it is described in the English subject curriculum and the Core Curriculum, and as aimed described in the sections above.
2.3 Literacy perspectives on literature in EFL education
Literature is an inseparable part of the English subject at all levels in LK06, and the main focus is not always first and foremost on the teaching of literature itself, such as literary analysis for example, but rather on language learning and intercultural learning. As reflected in LK06, reading includes much more than just decoding words, and the focus on literacy skills and competences is now considerable in most areas in the Norwegian educational system, including the English subject and the reading of literature.
2.3.1 Literacy and “literary literacy”
Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society.(Unesco 2004).
6 Efferent reading – to take knowledge out from text, see section 2.5
13 According to Unesco’s definition, literacy goes beyond just being able to read and write; it is adapted to the new and increased demands of a society continuously developing in pace with new types of information, communication and technology. Robert Scholes uses the metaphor
“textual power” about the “power” (skills or competence) which modern society requires of us in terms of reading skills in its broadest sense. In this way, textual power becomes an aim for each individual on his or her way through school and the education system (Scholes 1998). The focus on literacy is, as aimed shown in the previous sections, emphasized in the national curriculum of LK06 and in the Common European Framework for Languages:
CEFR. Scholes himself defines “textual power” in the following way:
Reading, in this sense of the word, means being able to place or situate a text, to understand it from the inside, sympathetically, and to step away from it and see it from the outside, critically. It means being able to see a text for what it is and to ask also how it connects – or fails to connect – to the life and the times of the reader. This is textual power. (Scholes 1998: 130)
However, what do the definitions of literacy above leave to the reading of literature? Several educational researchers as well as others have argued that there is a need for a redefinition or an expansion of the term “literacy” in order to also cover the reading of literature. The way we read a literary text is different from the way we read other types of texts, and that which lies in this difference is really a very good argument for reading literature and for employing it in the language-learning classroom. Lütge (2013: 192) claims: “In spite of this important role that literature has played in TEFL it is all the more astonishing that the concept of
‘literary competences’ has been rather neglected” . Lütge takes a critical stand against an alleged pragmatic-utilitarian scope of concepts and testability in the current competence orientated mode of education. By pointing in direction of the German language-learning classroom, Lütge calls out for a need for progression concerning the literary competences in the curriculum. I do not think it would be unreasonable to claim the same on behalf of Norwegian classrooms and the Norwegian National Curriculum.
Burwitz-Meltzer (in Lütge 2013) shows how literary texts are almost neglected in the CEFR, and that the processes related to reading literature, and the elaboration on these, are not systematically accessed at all within the framework. Various researchers have intended to describe different aspects and facets of literary competences, or more broadly, literary literacy, by suggesting categories and sub-categories aiming to describe different dimensions of literariness. Lütge elaborates on the model of Hallet (2007), who suggests the following sub-categories of “literary literacy”, a set of categories or dimensions described as a
14 convincing starting-point for future discussions on the topic. (It must be reminded here that Lütge has made some modifications on Hallet’s model):
a) Literary reading competence
This first dimension comprises three sets of skills related to the reading process:
- general reading skills - the ability of close reading
- the ability of emotionally responsive reading b) Literary cultural competence
The reciprocal connection between literature and culture is shown according to:
- the ability of recognizing intercultural and historical knowledge in literature,
- the ability of using literary texts as templates for individual and personal narrative responses,
- the readiness and ability of entering into a dialogue with the literary text, accepting differences and perceiving otherness as an enrichment.
c) Competence of reflection
This dimension addresses the ability of reflecting actions, attitudes and values - as presented in the literary work
- with reference to the narrative discourse and its representation
- on a meta-level, namely the reading process and the emotions involved with it.
d) Competence of foreign language discourse
Lastly, the fourth dimension refers to the aspect of foreign language learning through literature, i.e:
- The ability of developing foreign language learning, recognizing and making use of foreign language discourse in literature for the learner’s communication and interaction,
- The ability of relating perspectives and world views in literary works to one’s own life
(Lütge 2013: 198-199/ Hallet, 2007)
Lütge suggests that the model can serve as a starting point for a stage model of literary literacy (elementary, medium and advanced). Although all dimensions must be considered
15 simultaneously, they are not meant to be achieved fully on every individual level. By pursuing this rationale, the reading of literature should not be post phoned in education, leaving it for the advanced level only – because if so, valuable learning opportunities will go missing.
Additionally, the awareness of the many facets of literature, and how these are relevant for language learning, may be promoted by splitting up the dimensions of literary competences.
Lastly, focus on literary literacy and literary competences can ensure a steady progression in the reading of literature for each learner, enabling them to appreciate literature in the future, something that the English subject curriculum promotes as well (see section 2.2.2).Literacy skills and ‘textual power’ must also include the reading of literature.
2.4 Literary theories
The following section presents and discusses two main branches of literary theory. These are text-oriented theory and reader-oriented theory, with their basis in New Critical theory and Reader-response theory, respectively; they both have implications for the work on literary texts in the EFL classroom even though and maybe because they have different
characteristics.
2.4.1 Text-oriented theory: New Criticism
A central idea in text-oriented theory or New Criticism is that the text is autonomous, that it has a value in itself and is independent. As tried shown in the following section, all elements that can take the focus away from the text itself and its signs must be left out of the reading.
This could for example be information about the author or the personal feelings and opinions of the reader.
New Criticism as a literary theory focuses on the internal characteristics of the text itself. This theory describes a specific way of approaching and interpreting a text by performing a close reading revolving around the formal aspects of the text, directly contributed to its meaning.
Traditionally, American and British7 literary studies have had this focus, and furthermore, literature is in the Anglo-American tradition thought to be of great importance because in poems, plays and novels one can find ‘the best that has been thought and said’ (Matthew
7 In the United Kingdom this literary theory and its movement is referred to as ‘Practical criticism’ (Bertens
2001: 15, 27)
16 Arnold, cited in Bertens 2001: 27). Moreover, this form of literary criticism sees the
individual (the reader, the pupil) as fundamentally free in technical terms, and not determined and defined by social and economic circumstances. “We create ourselves, and our destiny,
individual (the reader, the pupil) as fundamentally free in technical terms, and not determined and defined by social and economic circumstances. “We create ourselves, and our destiny,