Constructs of teacher cognition

Teachers’ personal experiences as language learners

It is argued that ‘[b]eliefs established early on in life are resistant to change even in the face of contradictory evidence’ (Borg, 2003:86). Some of teachers’ beliefs may fall into this category, and they may further echo the teachers’ own experiences as language learners. Borg

(2003:88) refers to a research study that observed student teachers during a practicum. This study revealed that the teachers’ behaviour was to a large extent based on their recollection of teachers, classroom methodologies, and materials from their own experiences as L2 learners.

Borg (2003:88) further refers to a study of practising teachers, in which one teacher who had been unsuccessful at learning French during years of ELI avoided formal instruction in his practice as a teacher. The same teacher had, however, learned French through six months of communicating with French speakers. The teacher had consequently established a belief that second languages are most efficiently learnt and taught through communication, as opposed to through ELI. It is argued on the basis of studies such as the above that L2 teachers may promote or avoid certain activities based on their own experiences as language learners.

In sum, it is believed that teachers’ own learner experiences form a model upon which their

38 initial conceptualisations are based, and that these experiences may continue to exert

influence on their cognition. It is nonetheless suggested that these experiences may be altered during teachers’ education (Borg, 2003:87-91).

Teacher education

The role of teachers’ professional education in teacher cognition is a matter of controversy.

The consensus is nevertheless that teacher education to a greater or lesser extent impacts on cognition (Borg, 2003:89; Richards, 1998:21-9). It is suggested that the aspect of teacher cognition that is the most influenced by teacher education relates to teachers’ systems of concepts.

Abilities to reflect about own practices are considered crucial to the professional growth in the teacher, as such reflective abilities may ‘help teachers move beyond a level where they are guided largely by impulse, intuition, or routine’ (Richards, 1998:21). This claim obtains support from research on teacher trainees, which suggests that trainees’

cognition changes during their education in aspects such as knowledge of professional

discourse, the dimension of timing, and trainees’ metacognitive abilities to evaluate their own teaching (Borg, 2003:89).

Although the consensus is that teacher education influences teacher cognition, some aspects may be useful to consider when studying changes in teachers’ practices and cognition during education. Firstly, in terms of cognition, the results within studies vary, which

indicates that teacher cognition is an individual dimension in teachers. The dimension of individuality makes teacher cognition difficult to access, and therefore equally difficult to study for research purposes. Secondly, while teacher education may align teachers’ practices within a group, individual teachers’ cognition may still vary. Teachers’ practices, therefore, do not necessarily reflect their attitudes or beliefs. This is assumed to indicate that teachers may change their practices in accordance with contextual demands, for instance school conventions, while they at the same time maintain their attitudes and beliefs (Borg, 2003).

Sendan and Roberts (1998) conducted a longitudinal study of student teachers over a course of 15 months, which revealed that although the student teachers did not change their individual cognition contents, their teacher education did nevertheless result in a change in their cognition structure, i.e. the hierarchical organisation of the content. This study thus suggests that student teachers during their education may add new constructs to their

cognition, reorganise the structure of their existing cognition, establish flexible constructs, i.e.

39 clusters of constructs that varied according to different situations, and establish a stable

overall structure. These findings are further supported by Richards (1998:73-81).

Teachers’ classroom practices

Teachers’ classroom practices are argued to be manifestations of their attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge. However, the teaching context, i.e. ‘the social, psychological and environmental realities of the school and classroom’ (Borg, 2003:94), is also assumed to influence teachers’

practices. Teachers working in the same school may, for instance, implement ‘a set of shared principles through diverse practices’ (Borg, 2003:96). These agreed-upon practices may, however, not necessarily reflect the teachers’ cognitions. It is suggested that such

discrepancies between cognition and practice frequently occur due to contextual factors (Borg, 2003:94). The cognitive dimension of teacher cognition is nevertheless generally assumed to manifest itself in classroom practices in the form of the teacher’s instructional choices, whether planned or improvised, in principles that the teacher wishes to implement, and in the teacher’s thoughts in relation to various contextual factors (Borg, 2003:91;

Richards, 1998:51-72).

Reasons for teachers’ instructional decisions are assumed to include aspects such as concerns for learners’ comprehension and learners’ strategies to achieve comprehension, timing, and quality and quantity of ‘teacher talk’. In addition come the decisions that teachers make ‘in the face of unexpected difficulties’ (Borg, 2003:93). Unexpected events may prompt the teacher to depart from the original plan for the lesson. Such departures are regarded to be a consequence of the continuous interaction between teacher and pupils. The teacher may, for instance, introduce an unplanned-for activity if the pupils are not able or motivated to carry out the planned activity. Improvised decisions thus reflect teachers’

interpretations of classroom situations, and may further influence teachers’ future decisions. If the decision results in a positive classroom experience, for instance if the teacher manages to calm a noisy classroom by introducing a new activity, the teacher may later opt for the same decision if faced with a similar situation. However, improvised decisions may similarly result in negative experiences, for instance if the teacher feels pressured to revert to classroom practices that are in conflict with their principles. Such negative experiences are also included into the teacher’s cognition, and may thus influence the teacher’s future decisions (Borg, 2003:92-3).

Teachers’ classroom practices are further assumed to be influenced by contextual factors, such as requirements of parents, headmasters or curricula, society, resources, school

40 conventions and environment, or the physical classroom layout (Borg, 2003:94). In terms of the broader teaching context, teachers working with pupils who are perceived as frequently misbehaving may modify their classroom practices because of their pupils’ behaviour.

Examples of contextual factors that influence teachers’ practices include heavy workloads, shortage of time, large classes, unmotivated students, and a strongly conventional college.

Research indicates that teachers faced with such contextual factors may, for example, avoid experimenting with new teaching methods (Borg, 2003:94-5).

Research also indicates a correlation between length of teaching experience and teachers’ beliefs. It appears that less experienced teachers more frequently embrace recent theories of teaching than more experienced teachers, who tend to align themselves with older theories of teaching (Borg, 2003:102, 2006:145).

Researchers largely agree that the relationship between attitudes, beliefs and knowledge on the one hand, and classroom practices on the other, is a dynamic one.

Experiences from teachers’ classroom practices are incorporated into their cognitions. Thus, when teachers later draw on their experiences, their decisions relating to which practices work and which do not work might appear intuitive, while they are ultimately manifestations of the teachers’ accumulated classroom experiences and their cognition (Borg, 2003:95).