Brief history of the concept of security in Russia

Russian perceptions of security need to be understood in relation to the history of the concept of security as well as to the character of the Russian state and its people. Before the Russian Revolution in 1917, the term security did not have any specific interest for Russian philosophical and political thought. In the 18^th and 19^th centuries, security was understood as the preservation of a traditional system of state governance, traditional values and the general maintenance of order and public safety (Sedunov, 2008: 103). A number of national and international events in the 18^th and 19^th centuries⁴ convinced the rulers of the state to articulate state security as a national culture against ‘other ways of thinking’. This resulted in the triad,

“orthodoxy, autocracy, nation” (pravoslavie, samoderzhavie, narodnost) (Sedunov, 2008:

109). The number of police forces was increased, various political organizations were forbidden, and repressive methods were implemented (arrests, sentences, exiles and executions of those who were against the regime). The same mechanisms and strategies, though under a different ideological cover, were later used by the USSR (Sedunov, 2008: 127). After the revolution of 1917, the term ‘security’ again was monopolised by the state. The term ‘state security’ first appeared in 1934 with the creation of a special department for state security

4 Such as Pugachev’s rebellion in 1773-1775, the uprising of Semenov regiment in 1820, the Decembrist revolt in December 1825, and French revolution (1789) (Sedunov, 2008: 107-108).

within the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD). The term ‘state security’ came into use in Soviet legal literature in 1936 when a new constitution (known as ‘Stalin’s constitution’) replaced the first Soviet constitution from 1924. Though the term ‘security’ was used without any particular clarification (Constitution 1936, chapter 2, section 14, paragraph 1), its origin in the NKVD and ‘Stalin’s constitution’ played a significant role in the term’s further application. Security studies were mostly conducted by special research units belonging to institutions like the Committee for State Security (KGB) and therefore were not accessible to a broad audience, including the scientific community (Vasiljev, 1999). For this reason, the term ‘security’ became equated with ‘state security’. Additionally, due to defence preparedness in light of the Cold War, the term ‘state security’ became almost synonymous with the term

‘military security’ in the Russian context (Sergunin, 2012). This legacy caused some semantic confusion: it is sometimes difficult to separate the meanings of state security and security and to demarcate the line between different security issues (Sedunov, 2008; Sergunin, 2012).

Nevertheless, since the term first appeared in ‘Stalin’s constitution’ and was so highly militarized and securitized during the next several decades, it became difficult to talk about security in everyday life. The consequence for the Russian public is that people are not used to talking about it, since the security sphere is “something in which ordinary citizens should not meddle” (Medvedev, 1998: 80 cited in Åtland, 2009: 8). Security studies are thus strongly dominated by the concept of state security and little is known about the connection between the state and the individual within the Russian security paradigm, nor about the ability of people to cope with insecurities.

1.1.1. The first Russian law on security

Social and political changes at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s led to a discussion about the term ‘security’ (Vasiljev, 1999). The work of various scientific groups and centres on security issues resulted in a paradigm shift away from understanding security solely as a state concern. The first Russian Federal law “On security” (1992) was the result of work of various scientific research groups and thus became a symbol of an open society (Lomagin, 2005). Security was understood as “a state of protection of vital interests of individual, society and state from internal and external threats” (FL №2446-1, 1992, Section 1, Article 1).⁵ Vital interests were interpreted as “a totality of needs, satisfaction of which

5 All translations from Russian to English are mine unless otherwise noted.

reliably assures the existence and the possibility of progressive development of the individual, society and the state” (FL №2446-1, 1992, Section I, Article 1).

The Concept of National Security (CNS, 1997) appeared as an additional document to the Federal law “On security” (1992). The Concept introduced the term ‘national security’.

National security was understood for Russia as the “security of its multinational people as the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation” (CNS, 1997, Chapter I). National interests were defined as “a sum of balanced interests of the person, society and the state in economic, political, social, international, information, military, border, ecology and other spheres” (CNS, 1997, Chapter I). The Concept (CNS, 1997, Chapter III) had a particular focus on the issue of threats, which are characterized as both internal and external.

Difficult economic situation and threats towards national sovereignty were clearly articulated in the Concept.⁶ The Concept had one approach for coping with the problems: the strengthening of state control in all spheres (governance, business, economics, regional politics, health care, political party creation etc.). Economics was defined as a key priority for national development.

The energy sector was mentioned among targets for economic threats since fuel and raw materials and energy components dominate Russia exports (CNS, 1997, Chapter III). The depletion of natural resources was mentioned in connection to environmental problems (CNS, 1997, Chapter III). Overall, a strong concern about the weakening of the state in different spheres, and its inability to tackle existing challenges, dominated the document (CNS, 1997, Chapter III). The Concept (CNS, 1997, Chapter IV) also mentioned the Arctic region which was considered in need of special help from the state.

1.1.2. The Federal law “On security” from 2010

The new Federal law “On security” (FL №390) from 2010 substituted the law (FL №2446-1) from 1992. This new Federal law mentions four types of security: national security, public security, environmental security, and personal security, but does not define them (FL №390, 2010, Chapter I, Article 1). Further in the Federal law “On security” (2010) reference is made to ‘security’ and ‘national security’, which become synonymous, and absorb the other levels such as ‘public’ and ‘personal security’. Environmental security is the only other specific security issue mentioned in the document.

6 The economic difficulties presented in the Concept (1997) lately resulted into the financial crisis of 1998, the devaluation of ruble and default in Russia.

This new Federal law from 2010 is connected to other documents such as the Strategy of National Security (SNS-2020). The Strategy (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter III, item 23) defines the main priorities of national security in Russia as national defence and national and public security. The Strategy (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter I, item 6) introduces notions of ‘national security’, ‘national interest’, ‘threats to national security’, ‘strategic national priorities’,

‘system of national security’, ‘forces of national security’ and ‘means of national security’.

‘National security’ is defined as “protection of individuals, society and the state from internal and external threats, which allows the provision of constitutional rights, freedoms, decent quality and standard of life of citizens, sovereignty, territorial integrity and sustainable development of the Russian Federation, the defence and security of the state” (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter I, item 6). The document also introduces the term ‘personal security’ without any further clarification (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 3, item 46). The term ‘public security’ is often used in conjunction with the term ‘state security’ (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter II, item 9; Chapter III, item 23; chapter IV, Section 2, item 37, 38, 39, 40). The document also contains the terms ‘military security’ (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 1, item 26; 30),

‘food security’ 2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 3, item 49; 50), ‘energy security’ (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 4, item 60), ‘environmental security’ (SNS-(SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 8) and ‘economic security’ (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 2, item 37; Chapter IV, Section 4, item 60; 63). These terms are not clearly defined, but applied in order to spell out threats in various spheres of the national interest.

The Strategy (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter III, item 23) defines the main priorities of national security of Russia, which are “national defence and national and public security.” National security consists of nine priorities: “[N]ational defence; state and public security; enhancing of the quality of life of Russian citizens; economic growth; science, technology and education;

health care; culture; ecology of living systems and environmental management; strategic stability and equal strategic partnership” (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter III, item 24). As noted above, security issues (economic, environmental, food, military, energy) help to identify threats in each priority sphere. The energy sector is mentioned in relation to threats to national security in the economic sphere. Three out of the eight threats named in the document belong to energy sector: “[T]he raw materials export-model of the national economy,” “the loss of control over national resources,” and “the deterioration of the resource base of the industry and energy sector” (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 4, item 55). Energy security is claimed to be one of the main long-term concerns of national security in the economic sphere (SNS-2020,

2009, Chapter IV, Section 4, item 60). The efficiency of the fuel and energy complex (TEK) should be enhanced in the interests of national security in a medium-term perspective, (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 4, item 62). The Strategy (SNS-2020 2009, Chapter IV, section 3, item 48) even connects improving the quality of life of people to “expanded reproduction of the mineral resource base,” which is mentioned among social and economic measurements such as “reducing the level of organized crime,” “the availability of modern education and health,” and “high social mobility and support of socially significant employment.” The issue of the depletion of natural resources and the decrease in extraction of strategic minerals is mentioned in relation to environmental security (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, section 8, item 87). Overall, the SNS-2020 (2009) outlines the importance of natural resources and emphasises their relevance for other types of security. The document indicates that future Russian approaches to international politics will be focused on sources of energy, with special attention to “the shelf of the Barents Sea and the other regions of the Arctic” among other regions of interest (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter II, item 11). It demands effective state border protection, especially in the Arctic zone, the Far East and Caspian Sea (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 2, 42) and the “infrastructure, especially in the Arctic zone, Eastern Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation” (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter IV, Section 4, item 62).

The Arctic is linked to natural resources in the document, which defines “strategic priorities, objectives and measures in the field of domestic and foreign policy, determining national security and the level of sustainable development of the state in the long term” (SNS-2020, 2009, Chapter I, item 3).

An overview of the official documents provides access to how security was thought at the state level. The first Law “On security” from 1992 introduced the concept of security and defined it as a focus for societal and human concern. Related to the law the Concept of national security mostly documented difficult economic situations in the country and identified threats towards national sovereignty. The Strategy of national security from 2009 and the second Law “On security” from 2010 reveal the development of understanding of term security and introduce other types of security besides state and military security (such as economic, environmental, food, energy). Energy security and the Arctic are claimed to be of special focus of Russian security policy. The question is how this legal frame (top-down) affects people and their perception of security. Do these new understandings have significance for Russians in their daily live?

1.2. Lived experience of security transformation in Russia: from geopolitics to human