Språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap : Systematisk litteratursøk med sortering

(1)

Språk- og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap

Systematisk litteratursøk med sortering

2016

(2)

Utgitt av Tittel

Folkehelseinstituttet avdeling for kunnskapsoppsummering i Kunnskapssenteret Språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap

English title Language skills and country knowledge as requirements for citizenship Ansvarlig Camilla Stoltenberg, direktør

Forfattere Blaasvær, Nora, prosjektleder, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret Straumann, Gyri H, forskningsbibliotekar, Kunnskapssenteret Kurtze, Nanna, seniorforsker, Kunnskapssenteret

Meneses, Jose F, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret Bidonde, Julia, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret Berg, Rigmor C, seksjonsleder, Kunnskapssenteret ISBN 978‐82‐8082‐701‐2

Rapport 2016 Prosjektnummer 900

Publikasjonstype Systematisk litteratursøk med sortering Antall sider 15 (30 inklusiv vedlegg)

Oppdragsgiver Integrerings‐ og mangfoldsdirektoratet Emneord(MeSH) Citizenship, naturalization, test, require

Sitering

Forsidebilde

Blaasvær N, Straumann GH, Kurtze N, Meneses JF, Bidonde J, Berg RC. Språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap. Rapport fra 2016. Oslo:

Kunnskapssenteret for helsetjenesten i Folkehelseinstituttet, 2016.

Colourbox

(3)

3 Innhold

Innhold

INNHOLD 3

HOVEDBUDSKAP 5

KEY MESSAGES 6

FORORD 7

INNLEDNING 8

Problemstilling 8

Bakgrunn 8

Styrker og svakheter ved litteratursøk med sortering 9

METODE 10

Inklusjonskriterier 10

Litteratursøking 11

Artikkelutvelging 11

RESULTATER 12

Resultat av søk 12

Resultat av sorteringen 12

Identifiserte studier 12

REFERANSER 14

VEDLEGG 15

Vedlegg 1: Søkestrategi 15

Vedlegg 2: Liste over inkluderte referanser 18

Tabell 2. Studier som omhandler effekt av språk- og/eller kunnskapsprøver som

vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=4) 18

Tabell 3. Studier som omhandler effekt av ikke å ha innført språk- og

kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap/Studier som omhandler effekt av å få innvilget statsborgerskap på integrering (n=3) 20 Tabell 4. Studier som omhandler innvandreres erfaringer med språk- og/eller kunnskapsprøver knyttet til statsborgerskap (n=4) 21 Tabell 5. Studier som inneholder dokumentanalyse eller diskursanalyse mht

vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=10) 23

(4)

4 Innhold

Tabell 6. Publikasjoner som gir teoretiske drøftinger av språk- og/eller

kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=7) 27 Tabell 7. Andre mulig relevante publikasjoner – kun basert på tittel pga

sammendrag ikke tilgjengelig (n=7) 29

(5)

5 Hovedbudskap

Hovedbudskap

Kunnskapssenteret for helsetjenesten ved Seksjon for velferdstjenester fikk i oppdrag av Integrerings‐

og mangfoldsdirektoratet å utføre et systematisk litteratursøk med påfølgende sortering av mulig re‐

levante publikasjoner. Oppdraget var å identifisere publikasjoner som ser på effekt av språk‐ og sam‐

funnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap, er‐

faringer med slike vilkår, samt studier som diskute‐

rer slike vilkår.

Metode

Vi søkte i åtte databaser i tillegg til andre kilder (grå litteratur) fra år 2000 til desember 2015. To

forskere gikk uavhengig av hverandre gjennom identifiserte referanser og vurderte relevans i forhold til inklusjonskriteriene.

Resultater

 Litteratursøket gav 5332 unike referanser

 Vi identifiserte totalt 28 relevante referanser:

- 7 studier som omhandler effekt

- 14 studier som ser på erfaring og innhold i dokumenter eller diskurser

- 7 publikasjoner som gir teoretiske drøftinger av språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap.

Det fins internasjonal dokumentasjon om effekt, erfaringer og innhold i tiltak angående språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap.

I dette systematiske litteratursøket med sortering har vi ikke lest publikasjonene i fulltekst og vi har derfor ikke vurdert studienes kvalitet eller sammenstilt resultatene. Vi har kun sortert publikasjonene etter type innhold, basert på sammendragene.

Tittel:

Språk- og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Publikasjonstype:

Systematisk litteratursøk med sortering

Et systematisk litteratursøk med sortering er resultatet av å

- søke etter relevant litteratur ifølge en søkestrategi og

- eventuelt sortere denne litteraturen i grupper presentert med referanser og vanligvis sammendrag

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Svarer ikke på alt:

- Ingen kritisk vurdering av studienes kvalitet - Ingen analyse eller

sammenfatning av studiene - Ingen anbefalinger

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Hvem står bak denne publikasjonen?

Kunnskapssenteret i Folkehelseinstituttet har gjennomført oppdraget etter forespørsel fra Integrerings- og mangfoldsdirektoratet

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Når ble litteratursøket utført?

Søk etter studier ble avsluttet desember 2015

(6)

6 Key messages

Key messages

The Norwegian Directorate for Integration and Diversity comis‐

sioned a systematic literature search and subsequent categorisa‐

tion of studies that examined the effect of and/or experiences with language skills and country knowledge as requirements for citizenship.

Methods

We searched eight databases as well as other sources (i.e. grey literature) from 2000 to December 2015. Two researchers inde‐

pendently screened identified titles and abstracts (hereafter ab‐

stracts) for inclusion against predefined criteria.

Results

 The literature search resultet in 5332 unique references

 In total, we identified 28 relevant references - 7 studies measuring effect

- 14 studies looking at experience and contents of documents and discourses

- 7 publications that give theoretical discussions about language skills and country knowledge as requirements for citizenship.

Documentation about the effectiveness, experiences, and con‐

tents of interventions concerning language skills and country knowledge as requirements for citizenship is available.

In this systematic literature search we have not read the publications in full and hence neither critically evaluated the methodological quality nor synthesized the results of the studies.

We have only sorted the references by type, based on the abstracts.

Title:

Language skills and country

knowledge as requirements for citizenship

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Type of publication:

Systematic reference list

A systematic reference list is the result of a search for relevant literature according to a specific search strategy. The references resulting from the search are then grouped and presented with their abstracts.

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Doesn’t answer everything:

- No critical evaluation of study quality - No analysis or synthesis of the

studies

- No recommendations

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Publisher:

National Institute of Public Health

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Updated:

Last search for studies:

December 2015.

(7)

7 Forord

Forord

Seksjon for velferdstjenester ved Kunnskapssenteret for helsetjenesten fikk i april 2015 i oppdrag av Integrerings‐ og mangfoldsdirektoratet å identifisere studier som har sett på effekten av krav om bestått prøve i språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vilkår for statsborgerskap. Dette oppdraget skulle løses som et systematisk litteratursøk med sortering. Vi har dermed foretatt er systematiske litteratursøk, lest sammendrag i tråd med definerte inklusjonskriterier og sortert inkluderte studier etter hva de undersøker.

Vi har ikke lest artiklene i sin helhet, vurdert studienes kvalitet eller sammenstilt resul‐

tatene, slik vi ville gjort det i en systematisk forskningsoversikt.

Prosjektgruppen har bestått av:

 Nora Blaasvær, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret

 Gyri Hval Straumann, forskningsbibliotekar, Kunnskapssenteret

 Nanna Kurtze, seniorforsker, Kunnskapssenteret

 Jose F. Meneses, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret

 Julia Bidonde, forsker, Kunnskapssenteret

 Rigmor C Berg, forsker og seksjonsleder, Kunnskapssenteret

Signe Flottorp avdelingsdirektør

Rigmor C Berg seksjonsleder

Nora Blaasvær prosjektleder

(8)

Metode 8

Innledning

Problemstilling

Hva vet vi om effekten av krav om bestått prøve i språk‐ og samfunnskunnskap som vil‐

kår for innvilgelse av statsborgerskap?

Bakgrunn

Ulike land har ulike sett av vilkår for statsborgerskap. For eksempel har alle land egne bestemmelser om hvor lenge innvandrere må ha hatt oppholdstillatelse før de kan få innvilget statsborgerskap (1). Enkelte land har også krav knyttet til søkers økonomiske situasjon (selvforsørging e.l.) eller at søker ikke skal være kriminelt belastet, straffe‐

dømt e.l. (1).

Endrede migrasjonsmønstre de senere årene har ført til at mange av landene i Europa og Nord‐Amerika har endret sin statsborgerskapspolitikk i en mer restriktiv retning.

Det har blant annet vært en økning i bruk av språk‐ og kunnskapsprøver, og et vilkår om bestått prøve for å oppnå statsborgerskap (1‐3). Uttalt hensikt med språk‐ og kunn‐

skapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap er at de skal bidra til integreringen av nye borgere (3).

I desember 2015 ble det vedtatt i Stortinget at Norge gjør endringer i Statsborgerskaps‐

loven – dvs. vilkår om bestått prøve i norsk og samfunnskunnskap for å få innvilget statsborgerskap. Loven trer i kraft 1. juli 2016 (4).

Fra lovvedtaket §8 heter det: «For søkere mellom 18 og 67 år er det et krav at de har gjennomført 300 timer godkjent norskopplæring eller kan dokumentere tilstrekkelige kunnskaper i norsk eller samisk. For søkere mellom 18 og 67 år som er omfattet av rett eller plikt til opplæring i norsk og samfunnskunnskap etter introduksjonsloven, er det et krav at de har gjennomført den opplæringen de har rett eller plikt til. Søknadstids‐

punktet er avgjørende for om 18‐årsgrensen etter første og annet punktum er oppfylt».

Videre heter det: «For søkere mellom 18 og 67 år er det i tillegg et krav at de behersker et minimum av norsk muntlig og har bestått prøve i samfunnskunnskap på norsk» (4).

(9)

Metode 9

Denne endringen er en skjerpelse i forhold til dagens situasjon hvor kravet er at prøven skal være avlagt (5). Sett på bakgrunn av utviklingstakten i “vestlige” lands statsborger‐

skapspolitikk generelt, og den norske lovendringen spesielt, trengs det mer kunnskap om hvilken effekt denne typen vilkår for statsborgerskap har, hvordan slike vilkår opp‐

leves og hva denne tendensen er et uttrykk for.

Styrker og svakheter ved litteratursøk med sortering

Ved litteratursøk med sortering gjennomfører vi systematiske litteratursøk i elektro‐

niske databaser for en gitt problemstilling. I utgangspunktet benyttes kun databaser for identifisering av litteratur. I det aktuelle litteratursøket har vi imidlertid søkt etter litte‐

ratur også i Google og Google Scholar, fordi vi har ønsket å identifisere for eksempel rapporter som er utgitt av ulike myndigheter eller offentlige/private forskningsinstitu‐

sjoner. Dette gjøres vanligvis kun ved en full systematisk forskningsoversikt.

Ved en full systematisk forskningsoversikt ville vi ha innhentet artiklene i fulltekst for å vurdere om de tilfredsstilte inklusjonskritene. Vi ville så ha vurdert kvaliteten av de inkluderte studiene i henhold til våre sjekklister for metodisk kvalitet. Deretter ville vi ha sammenstilt og diskutert resultatene. Ved litteratursøk med sortering innhenter vi ikke publikasjonene i fulltekst. Det gjør at vi kan komme til å inkludere publikasjoner som ville vist seg ikke å være relevante hvis vi hadde gjennomlest artiklene i fulltekst.

Resultatene fra søket blir grundig gjennomgått for å ekskludere ikke‐relevante publika‐

sjoner. Dette gjør vi basert på tittel og eventuelt sammendrag. Ved litteratursøk med sortering gjennomfører vi ingen kvalitetsvurdering av studienes metodiske kvalitet og heller ingen sammenstilling av resultatene. Vi sorterer de inkluderte studiene etter inn‐

hold slik det fremkommer av sammendraget.

(10)

Metode 10

Metode

Inklusjonskriterier

Populasjon: Innvandrere til ‘vestlige land’

Tiltak: Vilkår om bestått språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøve for innvil‐

gelse av statsborgerskap

Sammenlikning: Andre modeller/instrumenter, evt. ingen sammenligning

Utfall: Ulike mål på integrering

‐For eksempel deltakelse i arbeidslivet, utdanning, organiasjo‐

ner, antall som stemmer ved valg eller på andre måter deltar på samfunnsarenaer

Studiedesign: Alle relevante design

Kontekst: Migrasjon, innvandring, statsborgerskap, testing av språk og samfunnskunnskap

Språk: Alle, betinget av at sammendraget er på engelsk

Land: ‘Vestlige land’

År: 2000‐2015

Fordi vi i utgangspunktet forventet å finne få empiriske studier som har sett på effekten av bestått språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøve som vilkår for innvilgelse av statsborger‐

skap, åpnet vi etter diskusjon med oppdragsgiver opp for også å se etter det motsatte – relevante empiriske studier fra land som ikke har innført slike restriksjoner. Vi valgte også å se etter andre måter å belyse problemstillingen på, gjennom å inkludere empi‐

riske studier som har målt effekten på integrering av å få innvilget statsborgerskap.

Videre åpnet vi ytterligere opp for å inkludere kvalitative studier som har sett på erfa‐

ringer med språk‐ og kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap, samt studier

(11)

Metode 11

som har gjort dokument‐ og diskursanalyse av ulike staters politikk på området. Vi ink‐

luderte også teoretiske drøftinger av innføringen av slike vilkår (årsaker til, konsekven‐

ser av, hva det er et uttrykk for osv). Slike publikasjoner kan muligens være til nytte i diskusjonen rundt lovendringen i Norge. Publikasjonene som ikke (kun) ser på spørs‐

mål om effekt av språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøve som vilkår for innvilgelse av statsbor‐

gerskap presenteres i egne tabeller.

Litteratursøking

Søkestrategien ble utarbeidet av forskningsbibliotekar Gyri Hval Straumann. Søket ble fagfellevurdert av forskningsbibliotekar Lien Nguyen.

Vi søkte systematisk etter litteratur i følgende indekserte databaser: The Campbell Library, Cochrane Library, ERIC, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Medline, Social Services Abstract og Sociological Abstracts. Vi søkte også i Google, Google Scholar, Open Grey og Grey Literature report for å identifisere ikke‐indeksert («grå») litteratur.

Søket bestod av emneord og tekstord som citizenship, naturalization, test, exam, re‐

quire. Det ble avgrenset til publikasjoner fra år 2000 og nyere. Søket ble avsluttet i de‐

sember 2015. Den fullstendige søkestrategien er gjengitt i Vedlegg 1.

Artikkelutvelging

To forskere (NB og NK/JM/JB) gikk gjennom alle titler og sammendrag for å vurdere relevans i henhold til inklusjonskriteriene. Vurderingene gjorde vi uavhengig av hver‐

andre og sammenlignet i etterkant. Der det var uenighet om vurderingene, ble inklu‐

sjon eller eksklusjon avgjort ved diskusjon, eventuelt konsultasjon med en tredjeper‐

son.

Utvelging av litteratur ble kun gjort basert på tittel og sammendrag og i henhold til in‐

klusjonskriteriene. Vi bestilte ikke fulltekst av publikasjonene. Kun basert på sammen‐

dragene var det i noen tilfeller vanskelig å avgjøre om publikasjonen faktisk var rele‐

vant. Usikkerheten var særlig knyttet til hvorvidt publikasjonen var en empirisk studie, hvorvidt eventuell empiri var av kvantitativ eller kvalitativ art og hvorvidt den rap‐

porte relevante utfall. Der vi var i tvil valgte vi å inkludere publikasjonen.

Etter diskusjon med Integrerings‐ og mangfoldsdirektoratet valgte vi som nevnt over å inkludere også andre typer studier enn de som kun undersøker effekt av vilkår for statsborgerskap, slik som kvalitative studier som ser på erfaringer med slike vilkår, samt dokumentanalyser og publikasjoner der språk og kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap drøftes teoretisk. Slike publikasjoner presenteres i egne tabeller.

(12)

Vedlegg 12

Resultater

Resultat av søk

Søket resulterte i 5332 referanser totalt. Vi vurderte 28 av de identifiserte referansene til å være mulig relevante i henhold til inklusjonskriteriene.

Hovedårsakene til eksklusjon var at publikasjonen evaluerte eller omtalte tester/prø‐

ver i en annen kontekst enn den som omhandler vilkår for statsborgerskap. Utvelgel‐

sesprosessen er illustrert i Figur 1.

Figur 1. Flytskjema over identifisert litteratur

Resultat av sorteringen

Identifiserte studier

Vi inkluderte 28 publikasjoner som mulig relevante for problemstillingen. Samtlige ink‐

luderte publikasjoner er tidsskriftsartikler.Basert på sammendragene kategorieserte vi publikasjonene som 7 kvantitative studier, 14 kvalitative studier og 7 teoretiske

5332 identifiserte referanser

28 referanser vurdert som mulig relevante

5304 referanser ekskludert på bakgrunn av tittel og

sammendrag

Kvantitative studier (n=7)

Kvalitative studier (n=14)

Teoretiske drøftinger (n=7)

(13)

Vedlegg 13

drøftinger. Disse 28 publikasjonene grupperte vi i fem ulike kategorier etter hvorvidt de tar opp spørsmålet om effekt av språk‐ og kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsbor‐

gerskap, belyser erfaringer med slike prøver, eller diskuterer dokumenter, diskurser og teoretiske retninger knyttet til vilkår for statsborgerskap. I noen tilfeller vil skillet mel‐

lom dokumentanalyse og teoretisk drøfting være kunstig – men vi har valgt å skille disse publikasjonene der dette tydelig fremkom fra sammendraget.

Sorteringen i de ulike kategoriene er kun basert på tilgjengelig informasjon fra sam‐

mendragene. En oversikt over hvor mange studier som faller inn under de ulike katego‐

riene finnes i tabell 1.

Tabell 1: Antall inkluderte studier sortert etter type innhold i referansen

Type studier Antall studier: Tabell

Studier som omhandler effekt av språk‐ og/eller kunnskaps‐

prøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap

4 2

Studier som omhandler effekt av ikke å ha innført språk‐ og kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap/Studier som omhandler effekt av å få innvilget statsborgerskap

3 3

Studier som omhandler erfaringer med språk‐ og/eller kunn‐

skapsprøver knyttet til statsborgerskap

4 4

Studier som inneholder dokumentanalyse eller diskursanalyse av vilkår for statsborgerskap

10 5

Publikasjoner som gir teoretiske drøftinger av språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap

7 6

I vedlegg 2 presenterer vi de inkluderte studiene fordelt på tabellene 2‐6. I første ko‐

lonne i tabellene oppgir vi forfattere, publikasjonsår, tittel på publikasjonen og publika‐

sjonssted. I andre kolonne gjengir vi sammendrag av artikkelen slik det fremkommer i de elektroniske databasene eller i selve dokumentet. I tredje kolonne har vi lagt inn kommentarer der dette har syntes hensiktsmessig. Publikasjonene er sortert alfabetisk etter forfatter.

I vedlegget har vi inkludert en tabell med 7 andre publikasjoner som muligens kan være relevante (tabell 7). Kun tittel var tilgjengelig, ikke sammendrag, derfor var det ikke mulig å kategorisere disse nærmere.

(14)

Vedlegg 14

Referanser

1. van Houdt F, Suvarierol S, Schinkel W. Neoliberal communitarian citizenship:

Current trends towards 'earned citizenship' in the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands. International Sociology 2011;26(3):408‐432.

2. McNamara T, Shohamy E. Language tests and human rights. International Jour‐

nal of Applied Linguistics 2008;18(1):89‐95.

3. Vink MP, de Groot GR. Citizenship Attribution in Western Europe: International Framework and Domestic Trends. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 2010;36(5):713‐734

4. Lovvedtak 23 (2015–2016). Vedtak til lov om endringer i statsborgerloven (krav om norskkunnskaper og bestått prøve i samfunnskunnskap). Lest 28.01.2016. Tilgjengelig fra: https://www.stortinget.no/no/Saker‐og‐publika‐

sjoner/Vedtak/Beslutninger/Lovvedtak/2015‐2016/vedtak‐201516‐023/#a1

5. LOV‐2005‐06‐10‐51. Lov om norsk statsborgerskap. Lest 28.01.2016.

Tilgjengelig fra: https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2005‐06‐10‐51

(15)

Vedlegg 15

Vedlegg

Vedlegg 1: Søkestrategi

Database: Campbell Library Dato for søk: 26.10.15

Bladde gjennom alle årgangene. Fant ingen relevante publikasjoner.

Database: Cochrane Library Dato for søk: 03.11.15

#1 citizenship or naturalization or naturalization 32

#2 test or tests or testing or exam or exams or criteri* or re‐

quire* or score or scores or scoring or measur* or curricu‐

lum

452611

#3 #1 and #2 27

Database: Eric

Dato for søk: 03.11.15

Searched for Databases Results

((SU.EXACT.EXPLODE("Tests") OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE("Crite- ria") OR SU.EXACT("Qualifications")) OR (TI("test" OR "tests" OR

"testing" OR "exam" OR "exams" OR criteri* OR require* OR

"score" OR "scores" OR "scoring" OR measure* OR "curriculum") OR AB("test" OR "tests" OR "testing" OR "exam" OR "exams" OR criteri* OR require* OR "score" OR "scores" OR "scoring" OR measure* OR "curriculum"))) AND ((SU.EXACT("Citizenship")) OR (TI("citizenship" OR "naturalization" OR "naturalisation")))

ERIC 1,660°

(16)

Vedlegg 16

Database: Sociological Abstracts + Social Services Abstracts Dato for søk: 03.11.15

Searched for Databases Results

((SU.EXACT.EXPLODE("Tests") OR SU.EX- ACT.EXPLODE("Criteria") OR SU.EXACT("Qualifi- cations")) OR (TI("test" OR "tests" OR "testing" OR

"exam" OR "exams" OR criteri* OR require* OR

"score" OR "scores" OR "scoring" OR measure* OR

"curriculum") OR AB("test" OR "tests" OR "testing"

OR "exam" OR "exams" OR criteri* OR require* OR

"score" OR "scores" OR "scoring" OR measure* OR

"curriculum"))) AND ((SU.EXACT("Citizenship")) OR (TI("citizenship" OR "naturalization" OR "naturalisation")))

Social Services Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts

1,127°

Database: Ovid MEDLINE(R) In‐Process & Other Non‐Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE(R) Daily, Ovid MEDLINE(R) and Ovid OLDMEDLINE(R) 1946 to Present Dato for søk: 03.11.15

# Searches Results

1 (citizenship or naturalization or naturalisation).ti,ab. 1868 2 (test or tests or testing or exam or exams or criteri* or

require* or score or scores or scoring or measur*).ti,ab.

5520414

3 1 and 2 520

Database: PsycINFO 1806 to October Week 4 2015 Dato for søk: 03.11.15

# Searches Results

1 Citizenship/ 4109

2 (citizenship or naturalization or naturalisation).ti,ab. 7460

3 1 or 2 8318

4 exp measurement/ 286498

5 (test or tests or testing or exam or exams or criteri* or require* or score or scores or scoring or measur* or curriculum).ti,ab.

1301543

6 4 or 5 1383837

(17)

Vedlegg 17

7 3 and 6 2427

Database: Web of Science Core Collection Dato for søk: 03.11.15

# 3 2,633 #2 AND #1

Indexes=SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI Timespan=All years

# 2 4,444,858 TOPIC: ("test" or "tests" or "testing" or "exam" or

"exams" or criteri* or require* or "curriculum") Indexes=SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI Timespan=All years

# 1 18,519 TOPIC: ("citizenship" or "naturalization" or "natu- ralisation")

Indexes=SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI Timespan=All years

Database: Google Scholar Dato for søk: 29.10.15

Citizenship tests Leste gjennom de første 200 tref‐

fene.

Naturalization tests Leste gjennom de første 200 tref‐

fene.

Naturalisation tests Leste gjennom de første 200 tref‐

fene.

Database: OpenGrey Dato for søk: 30.10.15

citizenship or naturalization or naturalisation 4

Database: Grey Literature Report Dato for søk: 30.10.15

Citizenship 24

Naturalization 231

Naturalisation 0

(18)

Vedlegg 18

Vedlegg 2: Liste over inkluderte referanser

Tabell 2. Studier som omhandler effekt av språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=4)

Referanse Sammendrag Kommentar

Goodman SW, Wright M.

Does Mandatory Integra- tion Matter? Effects of Civic Requirements on Immigrant Socio-economic and Political Out- comes. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 2015;41 (12): 1885-1908.

Several Western European countries have adopted policies of mandatory integration, requiring immigrants to acquire country knowledge, language and values as conditions for immigration, settlement and citizenship. The underlying concept is that-in pro- moting civic skills-immigrants are better equipped to politically, socially and economically integrate. However, the question of whether civic integration is designed to be a real solution to repair integration problems has gone untested. This paper presents results, across a wide range of outcomes, which finds much more support for a symbolic narrative than a functional one. Using a unique data-set to measure civic integration policy across six waves of the European Social Survey (2002-2012), we find little evidence that these requirements produce tangible, long-term integration change. This does not diminish their significance; in- stead, we find requirements serve a meaningful gate-keeping role, while simultaneously repositioning the state closer to immigrant lives.

Spørreundersøkelse med data fra 2002- 2012.

Piracha M, Zhu Y. Pre- cautionary savings by natives and immigrants in Germany. Applied Econo- mics 2012;44(21):2767- 2776.

This article analyses the savings behaviour of natives and immigrants in Germany. It is argued that uncertainty about future income and legal status (in case of immigrants) is a key component in the determination of the level of precautionary savings. Us- ing the German dataset, we exploit a natural experiment arising from a change in the nationality law in Germany to estimate the importance of precautionary savings. Using a Difference-in-Differences (DiD) approach, we find a significant reduction in savings and remittances for immigrants after the easing of citizenship requirements, compared to the pre-reform period. Our parametric specification shows that introduction of the new nationality law reduces the gap in marginal propensity to save between natives and immigrants by up to 80%. These findings suggest that many of the differences in terms of the savings behaviour between natives and immigrants are driven by the savings arising from the uncertainties about future income and legal status rather than cultural differences.

Studien ser på innvandreres tendes til å spare penger av- hengig av vilkår for statsborgerskap.

Dette utfallet er litt på siden mtp. integrering, men kan muligens likevel være in- teressant.

Rodriguez Rodriguez

RMa. Immigration and The ethnic complexity of present societies challenges a notion of citizenship based on the exclusive relationship between nation-

ality & statehood. Status inequalities among foreign residents unable to attain the nationality of their country of residence makes Uklart om studien er empirisk.

(19)

Vedlegg 19

Citizenship. Sistema

2006 (190-191):93-104 them prone to greater social vulnerabilities. This paper analyses the differences in rights between nationals & resident non-nationals; it then examines current criteria for accession to Spanish citizenship, & their evolution in recent years; finally, it suggests some of the consequences. Tables, Graphs. Adapted from the source document.

Wright S. Citizenship Tests in Europe -- Edito- rial Introduction. Interna- tional Journal on Multicul- tural Societies

2008;10(1):1-9.

This issue of UNESCO's International Journal on Multicultural Societies (IJMS) is dedicated to the subject of citizenship tests.

Formal assessments now form part of the application process for naturalisation in many parts of the world, and the practice is growing. At the time of writing, in late 2007, countries that had introduced formal citizenship testing included the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Australia, and a number of other states (e.g. France) were discussing the possibility of doing so. Tests are thus a matter of current interest, are in a period of development and clearly need some examination and discussion. This issue is intended to contribute to the debate by giving detailed information about the current situation in four Western European states (Denmark, France, the Netherlands and the UK); indicating some of the problems provoked by the tests, as well as some of the advantages they confer; and seeking to understand some of the motivations for their introduction. Adapted from the source document.

Mulig empiri og relevante utfall.

(20)

Vedlegg 20

Tabell 3. Studier som omhandler effekt av ikke å ha innført språk‐ og kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap/Studier som omhandler effekt av å få innvilget statsborgerskap på integrering (n=3)

Corluy V, Marx I, Verbist G. Employment chances and changes of immigrants in Belgium: The impact of citizenship. In- ternational Journal of Comparative Sociology 2011;52(4):350-368.

This article looks at the impact of citizenship acquisition on the labour market position of immigrants in Belgium. Citizen- ship is open to all immigrants with a sufficient period of legal residence, without any language or integration requirements.

In that respect, this study is an important complement to existing studies which have mostly focused on countries with strict acquisition rules. Based on Labour Force Survey data for 2008, this study uses probit regression to estimate the static and dynamic employment probabilities and unemployment risks. We find that citizenship acquisition is associated with better labour market outcomes for non-Western immigrants in general. This effect remains after controlling for years of residence since migration, indicating the existence of a citizenship premium in Belgium.

Spørreundersøkelse med data fra Belgia for 2008. Ut- fall er innvandreres posisjon i arbeidsmarkedet.

Fra sammendraget: “this study is an important complement to existing studies which have mostly focused on countries with strict acquisition rules”. Studiene det refereres til kan være relevante –se fullftekst for evntuelle referanser til disse studiene.

Richard JL. Unemploy- ment of people of foreign origin in France: The role of discrimination. Cana- dian Studies in Popula- tion 2013;40(1-2):75-88.

This article has two primary objectives: (1) to understand the relationship between the origins of the children of immigrants and the likelihood of unemployment; and (2) to examine the possible role of discrimination in the likelihood of unemployment. The French Permanent Demographic Sample (EDP, a longitudinal database maintained by INSEE, which is the French equivalent of the English Longitudinal Survey) permits the study young foreign-born people who grew up in France and young people of foreign-origin who were born in France. The EDP is a census-based panel survey that, on average, comprises a 1 per cent sample of all immigrant groups. It contains information on a person's nationality relative to his/her labour market position. According to most academics, it also contains valuable socio-demographic and socio- economic information on parents and their sons and daughters. The data registry was created in 1967 and includes data from the 1968, 1975, 1982, 1990, and 1999 censuses. The interest in individual trajectories requires us to consider the relations between personal labour market situations and the acquisition of French nationality. This relation must be ana- lyzed in light of the population which consists of those children who, since childhood, have been in a position to acquire

Effekten av innvilget statsborgerskap på innvandreres posisjon i arbeidsmarkedet i Frankrike.

(21)

Vedlegg 21

French citizenship. Although gaining citizenship is usually regarded as an important sign of civic and political assimilation among immigrants, it can also be seen as a factor in their economic assimilation. French nationality makes it easier for young immigrants to get jobs. It is better to be a young Algerian or Moroccan with French nationality than to be a young Algerian or Moroccan who does not have French nationality.

Wiesbrock A. The Inte- gration of Immigrants in Sweden: a Model for the European Union? Interna- tional Migration

2011;49(4):48-66.

In an overall ranking by the Migration Policy Group of 2006 measuring immigrant integration policies in 28 countries, Sweden scored more points than any other country. This result is especially interesting given that Swedish integration policies differ considerably from integration policies applied in other EU countries. Whereas in countries such as the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, the United Kingdom, and France integration conditions have become increasingly restrictive in recent years, in Sweden the participation in integration courses is still voluntary and no integration requirements must be met for long-term residence or citizenship. Moreover, the Swedish integration programme is characterised by an increasing number of labour-market related integration measures. Yet, in contrast to the Migration Policy Group ranking, data collected from the OECD and Eurostat seem to indicate unfavourable integration outcomes in Sweden, at least in terms of labour market participation. The gap in employment rates between the native and foreign-born population in Sweden widened during the 1990s and has not narrowed significantly since then. This means that the outcome of Swedish integration policies is at least ambiguous, which makes the use of Sweden as a model for integration policies in other member states inconceivable.

Ser på innvandreres posisjon i arbeidsmarkedet i Sverige.

Tabell 4. Studier som omhandler innvandreres erfaringer med språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøver knyttet til statsborgerskap (n=4)

Referanse Sammendrag Cooke M. Barrier or Enti-

tlement? The Language and Citizenship Agenda in the United Kingdom.

Language Assessment

In the United Kingdom (UK) there are two ways for applicants to fulfil the requirement to show their knowledge of English language and life in the UK:

they can take a computer-based citizenship test or attend an English class which includes citizenship teaching. This article describes the background to the test and the struggle to ensure that applicants with lower levels of English would not be excluded. It focuses particularly on citizenship classes and the tension between the framing by politicians of the test as an entitlement for migrants which ensures access to their full set of rights, and the experience of the testing regime by those affected by it.

(22)

Vedlegg 22

Referanse Sammendrag Quarterly 2009;6(1):71-

77.

Han C, Starkey H, Green A. The Politics of ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages): Impli- cations for Citizenship and Social Justice. Inter- national Journal of Life- long Education 2010;29(1):63-76.

A number of countries in Europe, including the UK, have adopted language and citizenship tests or courses as a requirement for granting citizenship to immigrants. To acquire citizenship, immigrants to the UK must pass a test on British society and culture, or demonstrate progress in the English language. For those with an insufficient command of the language, there is the option in the UK of taking an English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) with citizenship course. These language and citizenship tests and courses are seen by governments as a way of encouraging immigrants to develop the competences believed necessary for social integration. Equally, these are seen as a means for immigrants to demonstrate their willingness to integrate. However, two types of criticisms have been made against compulsory tests and language programmes. The first questions the need for these. The second focuses on whether they are a genuine contribution to preparation for citizenship or whether these, in effect, constitute a gatekeep- ing mechanism, or otherwise lead to social injustice; related to this is the question of whether the emphasis on language as defining of nationhood and citizenship is a move away from multiculturalism towards a policy of assimilation. In addition, there are issues relating to funding. This paper presents the results of a study of a "skills for life" ESOL course at a community college in London that is specifically intended to help immigrants seeking to qual- ify for British citizenship. An interview was carried out with staff involved in ESOL at the college, and a focus group discussion was conducted with a student group. The aim of the paper is to provide an account of the experiences of the students in the light of the criticisms that have made against compulsory tests and language programmes. We also examine the impact of policy changes, including funding cuts, on the college and students. Alt- hough we found the language and citizenship class to be a positive experience, we note inconsistencies and contradictions in policies and discourses around language. (Contains 3 notes.)

MacGregor S, Bailey G.

British citizen or other?

Reflections on New La- bour's reforms to the UK citizenship process. Bri- tish Politics

2012;7(4):365-388.

The reforms to the citizenship process under New Labour were part of a policy of reinvigorating citizenship as a tool for fostering community cohesion.

By requiring newcomers to learn English, take a test and attend a ceremony, the Government aimed to help them to integrate better into British life, thereby reducing problems allegedly caused by growing diversity in large multicultural cities. Several years since the introduction of these reforms, and in the wake of yet more changes by the Coalition government, it is important to reflect critically on their impacts. To do so, this article presents the results of a study which sought the opinions of non-EU immigrants and others with direct experience of the new citizenship process. The research found that, contrary to New Labour's promotion of British citizenship as a common bond, the process serves to reinforce 'otherness' and to encourage an instrumental approach to 'getting nationality'. It is argued that, in modelling the process on those that operate uncontroversially in North America, New Labour forgot the most important ingredients: public support for multiculturalism and respect for newcomers. British Politics (2012) 7, 365-388.

doi:10.1057/bp.2012.19; published online 10 September 2012.

(23)

Vedlegg 23

Referanse Sammendrag Stewart E, Mulvey G.

Seeking Safety beyond Refuge: The Impact of Immigration and Citizen- ship Policy upon Refu- gees in the UK. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Stu- dies 2014;40(7):1023- 1039.

Western states are concerned about maintaining and securing national borders. Across Europe, one response has been to implement restrictive asylum regimes that prevent 'bogus' applicants and grant refuge only to the 'deserving'. Alongside these concerns, states are eager to encourage socially cohesive communities. One recent tool adopted by the UK government has been citizenship policy, including English language/life in the UK tests and citizenship ceremonies. By drawing upon in-depth interviews with refugees in Scotland (UK), this paper explores the impact of the current asylum regime and citizenship policies from the perspective of individual voices that are often absent from wider debates. It explores how temporary refugee status impacts upon individuals' everyday lives including employment and education, and impacts upon children. The data also question the reasons for refugees deciding to become British citizens (or not) and highlight instrumental reasons alongside less tangible factors such as gaining a sense of security. Taking the discussion forward, the study explores some unintended consequences of immigration and citizenship policies in the UK. The research suggests that not only do restrictive asylum policies negatively impact upon refugees and their integration but also serve to elevate fear and uncertainty, which can unintentionally spur individuals to seek naturalisation.

Tabell 5. Studier som inneholder dokumentanalyse eller diskursanalyse mht vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=10)

Referanse Sammendrag Adamo S. Northern Expo-

sure: The New Danish Model of Citizenship Test.

International Journal on Multicultural Societies 2008;10(1):10-28.

The paper begins with a discussion of the general context of naturalisation in Denmark from a politico-legal angle, and sets the frame for the current debate on the introduction of the citizenship test. The second section analyses the content of the citizenship test and the arguments that have accom- panied its adoption. The third section offers a more theoretical approach to the use of citizenship tests, evaluating the arguments in favour and against this practice in citizenship regulation. In this analysis, comparisons are drawn with the Canadian citizenship test and policy, and reference made to the theoretical model of multiculturalism developed by Will Kymlicka. The conclusion is provisional and takes into consideration the fact that the citizenship test is a relatively new introduction in Denmark, which makes its impact difficult to measure in empirical terms. There is, however, some evidence to suggest that the test was introduced in Denmark as another rung on the ladder to achieving citizenship, adding to the other rather onerous requirements already in place (long residence, advanced language skills and renunciation of former citizenship). For many applicants it thus may play a gate- keeping role. Adapted from the source document.

(24)

Vedlegg 24

Referanse Sammendrag Fozdar F, Spittles B. The

Australian Citizenship Test: Process and Rheto- ric. Australian Journal of Politics and History 2009;55(4):496-512.

In late 2007, Australia's relatively liberal citizenship eligibility requirements were modified, ostensibly to improve the value of citizenship by restricting access to it. A key change involved the introduction of a citizenship test. This article tracks its development and implementation. We challenge claims of overwhelming support for the test, explore the discourses around the 'Australian values' being tested, and outline the process by which the legislation was enacted (during which a number of principles of parliamentary democracy were compromised). Using evidence from politicians' speeches, we argue the citizenship test served to re-direct the Australian imagination away from a nascent 'multicultural' identity, back to one redolent of the times of the 'White Australia Policy', confidently celebrating connections with an Anglo-Saxon heritage, the European Enlightenment, and Judeo- Christian roots. As such it was a key aspect of the 1996-2007 Howard Government's retreat from multiculturalism. Adapted from the source document.

Goodman SW. Integra- tion Requirements for In- tegration's Sake? Identi- fying, Categorising and Comparing Civic Integra- tion Policies. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Stu- dies 2010;36(5):753-772.

Several countries in Europe have recently adopted obligatory language and country-knowledge requirements for settlement, naturalisation and immigration. Integration tests, courses and contracts are only a few examples of the new 'civic integration policies' states are using to promote individual autonomy and common values for newcomers. Are these requirements in response to concrete problems of immigrant integration? Do they enable, or actually inhibit, integration? This paper examines the various pressures behind attaching mandatory integration requirements to status acquisition. To systematically examine these policies, I develop a civic integration index (CIVIX) to measure language, country-knowledge and value-commitment requirements across the EU-15. While there is a general shift toward civic requirements across Europe, evidence reveals important differences in the degree of policy change. Finally, I explore how new civic requirements complement or challenge existing citizenship practices, identifying where integration is facilitated and rewarded with citizenship. I also show where civic requirements fill strategic goals, mainly controlling the inflow and impact of immigration. The arguments made here support a critical rethinking of the conventional wisdom about national models of integration and a dynamic understanding of state citizenship strategies, where policies define not only the rules but also the content of national membership.

Kiwan D. A Journey to Citizenship in the United Kingdom. International Journal on Multicultural Societies 2008;10(1):60- 75.

This paper examines the naturalisation requirements for British citizenship that were introduced in November 2005. I examine these new requirements -- including the introduction of 'citizenship' tests, in the context of my direct involvement in recent UK policy developments in the domains of nationality, immigration and education. I make three interrelated arguments. First, that the citizenship policy developments on nationality cannot be fully understood without reference to earlier and continuing developments in citizenship education policy. Second, that the introduction of citizenship tests illustrates a 'restrictive' turn in which nationality laws are increasingly encroaching on liberal norms in Western European countries. And finally, that 'national' citizenship tests in a supposedly 'post-national' world are obsolete. Adapted from the source document.

(25)

Vedlegg 25

Referanse Sammendrag Kunnan AJ. Politics and

legislation in citizenship testing in the United States. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 2009;29:37-48.

Politics and legislation have been entangled in language planning and policy in the United States since 1776. Regulations for immigration and citizenship (naturalization) have been in place since the Naturalization Act of 1790. This article examines the history of immigration and citizenship legislation that started with this act up to the more recent act of 1952, which included regulations requiring ability in English language and knowledge of history and government. It concludes with brief examinations of the old and redesigned Naturalization Tests.

Milani TM. At the inter- section between power and knowledge An analysis of a Swedish policy document on language testing for citizenship.

Journal of Language and Politics 2009;8(2):287- 304.

The aim of this article is to analyse a policy document in which the Swedish Liberal Party attempts to substantiate the proposal to introduce a Swedish language test for naturalisation by referring to academic production. Taking this specific text as a case in point, the article draws upon Critical Dis- course Analysis and Foucault's notion of govern mentality to show how the rationalisation and legitimation of a particular political proposal is inextrica- bly related to processes of knowledge production. Govern mentality will also allow us to understand that language requirements for citizenship are a tangible manifestation of an advanced liberal political rationality in late modernity.

Milani TM. Language testing and citizenship: A language ideological debate in Sweden.

Language in Society 2008;37(1):27-59.

This article explores a public debate that took place in Sweden in 2002 in relation to the Swedish Liberal Party's proposal to introduce a language test for naturalization. On the basis of textual analysis of relevant policy documents and newspaper articles, it examines the explicit and implicit facets of an ideology of language testing. It is argued that a seemingly liberal, antiracist, and anti-discriminatory ideology is emerging, which, in its explicit facet, calls for the introduction of a language test for citizenship as a practical way of diminishing social differentiation. However, drawing upon Bourdieu's notion of rites of institution, it is shown that such a test would actually contribute to, rather than challenge, the reproduction of social differentiation, thereby legitimizing the exclusion of certain groups from both the civic and symbolic domains of Sweden as a nation-state.

Osler A. Testing Citizen- ship and Allegiance: Pol- icy, Politics and the Edu- cation of Adult Migrants in

This article examines recent UK government policy and proposals relating to immigration and citizenship, and the ways in which these policies are presented as means of securing allegiance and integration. From 1997, the incoming Labour government emphasized the importance of informed, active citizenship and social justice. From 2001, the emphasis shifted to community cohesion, with immigrants identified as a potential threat to cohesion. The article analyses the knowledge required of new settlers through the "citizenship test", introduced in 2005, and the assumptions made about immigrants and about British culture and society in the test. It critiques the concepts of "active citizenship", "earned citizenship" and "proba-

(26)

Vedlegg 26

Referanse Sammendrag the UK. Education, Citi-

zenship and Social Jus- tice 2009;4(1):63-79

tionary citizenship" in the 2008 Green Paper, "The Path to Citizenship." These policy proposals, if enacted, threaten migrants' employment opportu- nities, risk creating barriers to participation and undermining social cohesion. They place unrealistic demands on aspirant citizens, which are not placed on established citizens. (Contains 4 notes.)

Peucker M. Open Forum:

Similar Procedures, Di- vergent Function: Citizen- ship Tests in the United States, Canada, Nether- lands and United King- dom. International Jour- nal on Multicultural Socie- ties 2008;10(2):240-261.

Countries with entirely different policies and traditions of integration and naturalization have introduced citizenship tests as a core element of their naturalization procedures. Contrary to prevailing findings these developments do not necessarily indicate a growing resemblance between country- specific understandings of integration and citizenship. Comparative analysis of the naturalization procedures in the United States, Canada, the Neth- erlands and the United Kingdom illustrates that similar citizenship tests can serve entirely different purposes. They can strive to ensure the new citizens' loyalty to the country or to promote their integration, but can also make citizenship less accessible. Citizenship tests per se constitute an abstract political tool whose functions can only be understood within a specific political framework. Although their immediate impact seems generally overrated in the political discourse, they can play a forceful indirect role in the integration process -- as an encouraging invitation or a deterring hur- dle. Adapted from the source document.

van Houdt F, Suvarierol S, Schinkel W. Neoliberal communitarian citizenship: Current trends towards 'earned citizenship' in the United Kingdom, France and the Nether- lands. International So- ciology 2011;26(3):408- 432.

As Western European nation-states adapt to the challenges posed to the nation-state by globalization and immigration, adjusting citizenship criteria for immigrants has been one of the responses to these developments. This article compares the current changes in citizenship policies of three Western European states: the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands. The main concern of the article is to shed light on the emerging development of a form of neoliberal communitarian citizenship that involves an increased emphasis on the need to earn one's citizenship. While many have signalled a shift towards neoliberal citizenship, this study assesses to what extent such a shift is characterized by a contractual view that sees citizenship no longer primarily as a prima facie right but as a prized possession that is to be earned and can be lost if not properly cultivated. At the same time, the study analyses the content of citizenship criteria to see how the nation-state in these three countries is sacralized by an emphasis on the national community. These two trends of earned citizenship are conceptualized in the study as neoliberal communitarianism.

(27)

Vedlegg 27

Tabell 6. Publikasjoner som gir teoretiske drøftinger av språk‐ og/eller kunnskapsprøver som vilkår for statsborgerskap (n=7)

Referanse Sammendrag Laegaard S. Immigration,

social cohesion, and naturalization. Ethnicities 2010;10(4):452-469.

The standard appeal to social cohesion in relation to immigration concerns admittance and residence. But social cohesion is sometimes also invoked as a relevant concern in relation to the attainment of citizenship in the state through naturalization. Many western states have recently tightened conditions for naturalization and introduced tougher language requirements and knowledge of society tests. The article discusses how concerns for social cohesion might function as a part of justifications of such restrictive naturalization requirements. It argues that standard concerns with generalized social trust do not connect with issues of naturalization at all. Other conceptions of social cohesion are either politically controversial, problematic as part of the justification of stricter naturalization requirements, or in fact justify less demanding naturalization requirements.

Levey GB. Liberal nationalism and the Australian citizenship tests. Citizens- hip Studies

2014;18(2):175-189.

Scholars have debated whether citizenship regimes in Western democracies are tracking a liberal universalistic path or continue to follow distinctive national traditions. This essay argues that the Australian case does both through a distinctive liberal nationalist architecture. Increasingly since the 1970s, Australian citizenship acquisition and status have largely followed a civic nationalist or liberal universalist formulation. However, this has been executed within a broader liberal nationalist approach to national identity and culture that accommodates these aspects of national life. The essay discusses the idea of liberal nationalism as a political architecture of differentiated domains, Australia's construction of this architecture, and how Australia's two recent citizenship tests illustrate this framework in action. It concludes with some thoughts on the symbolic significance of citizenship tests for liberal legitimacy and the future of the liberal nationalist project.

Lowenheim O, Gazit O.

Power and Examination:

A Critique of Citizenship Tests. Security Dialogue 2009;40(2):145-167.

Terror threats and fear of ethnic and religious outbursts, combined with the aspirations of governments to better integrate immigrants into society, have led a growing number of Western states to adopt the practice of citizenship tests as a prerequisite for full citizenship. These tests require the immigrant, usually of non-Western origin, to demonstrate advanced language skills as well as comprehensive civic and cultural knowledge of the host society. While existing literature focuses either on internal inconsistencies within civic integration policies or on the models of citizenship reflected in the exams, the present article offers a critical and power-centered approach to the subject. Using a Foucauldian perspective, we analyze the tests as a sign of authority, a technology of naturalizing authority, and a disciplinary tool. This study joins a growing body of literature on the concept of gov- ernmentality, putting the spotlight on the 'microphysics of power', specifically at borders and liminal points where the state's presence is prominent.

McNamara T, Ryan K.

Fairness Versus Justice in Language Testing: The Place of English Literacy in the Australian Citizen-

This article proposes a distinction between fairness and justice in relation to language tests. Basing its discussion on the validity theory of Samuel Messick, it discusses the way in which these terms have been used in the existing literature, and their relationship to the concept of validity. Fairness, broadly speaking, refers to the technical quality of the test; justice encompasses the values implicit in test constructs, and the social uses to which

(28)

Vedlegg 28

Referanse Sammendrag ship Test. Language As-

sessment Quarterly 2011;8(2):161-178.

language tests may be put. It illustrates the potential usefulness of the distinction by discussing the growing international practice of the use of language tests within citizenship procedures, and considers in detail the introduction of a formal citizenship test in Australia by a conservative government in the context of growing public anxiety about security, and about cultural diversity within the Australian population.

Turner J. Testing the liberal subject: (in)security, responsibility and 'self-improvement' in the UK citizenship test. Citizenship Studies 2014;18(3- 4):332-348.

The recent debate over the changes to the Life in the UK' citizenship test offers another opportunity to reflect on the testing of would-be citizens in liberal democracies. The citizenship test has often been understood as part of the strengthening' of national borders: set within a discourse of fears over high levels of migration and the risk to cultural homogeneity. Furthermore, it has been viewed as an illustration of the death of multiculturalism and presented as an illiberal strategy of cultural assimilation. I propose that whilst the notion of testing' is built out of fears regarding threatening' difference and community cohesion', what the UK testing process presents is an explicitly liberal strategy of governing. Drawing on the history of the test, I suggest that it is not purely a mechanism of restriction but that it also relies on strategies of responsibility, empowerment and self-improvement'.

The citizenship test, alongside other recent border strategies, may be better understood as representing a fascinating nexus between advanced liberal ideas of governing and concerns regarding (in)security. I argue that studying the test in this way offers up vital questions about how community and political membership continues to be shaped in late modernity.

Vink MP, de Groot GR.

Citizenship Attribution in Western Europe: Interna- tional Framework and Do- mestic Trends. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 2010;36(5):713- 734.

This special issue of JEMS deals with the challenges of migration for citizenship attribution in Western Europe. In this introductory paper we analyse recent developments in citizenship attribution across Western Europe over the past 25 years. Despite the contradictory impact of the instrumentalisa- tion and politicisation of citizenship policies, and the fact that countries have different citizenship traditions and migration experiences, we observe six broad trends. These relate to the descent-based transmission of citizenship by women, men and emigrants; ius soli provisions for second- and third- generation immigrants; the acceptance of multiple citizenship; the introduction of language and integration requirements for naturalisation; the avoid- ance of statelessness; and the increasing relevance of EU membership. We describe the background and core features of each of these six trends and provide empirical examples from citizenship policies in 18 West European countries since the early 1980s.

Wodak R. Dis-Citizenship and Migration: A Critical Discourse-Analytical Per- spective. Journal of Language Identity and

Inclusion and exclusion of migrants are renegotiated in the European Union on almost a daily scale: ever new policies defining and restricting immigration (usually from third world countries) are proposed by European member states. Thus, a return to ever more local policies and ideologies can be observed on many levels: traditions, rules, languages, visions, and imaginaries are affected. In this article, I suggest that we are currently experienc- ing a re/nationalisation in spite of (or perhaps because of) multiple globalising tendencies. Thus, citizenship and language tests are being or have already been introduced to all European nation states, thus emphasizing a revival of the national language as constitutive for access to employment,

(29)

Vedlegg 29

Referanse Sammendrag Education

2013;12(3):173-178. housing, or education and promising achievement of successful integration. In this way, migrants are perceived as having a deficit even if manifold tests provide evidence that native speakers (of German, for example) might also lack many language skills.

Tabell 7. Andre mulig relevante publikasjoner – kun basert på tittel pga sammendrag ikke tilgjengelig (n=7)

Referanse

Chi YS, Davidson F. Language Testing, Migration and Citizenship. Journal of Sociolinguistics 2012;16(4):564-566.

Etzioni A. Citizenship tests: A comparative, communitarian perspective. Political Quarterly 2007;78(3):353-363.

Greenwood J, Robins L. Citizenship tests and education: Embedding a concept. Parliamentary Affairs 2002;55(3):505-522.

Mason A. Citizenship Tests: Can They Be a Just Compromise? Journal of Social Philosophy 2014;45(2):137-161.

Park JWJ. A more meaningful citizenship test? Unmasking the construction of a universalist, principle-based citizenship ideology. California Law Review 2008;96(4):999-1047.

Ryan K. Language Testing, migration and citizenship: Cross-national perspectives on integration regimes. Language Testing 2011;28(2):298-302.

Shohamy E, McNamara T. Language Tests for Citizenship, Immigration, and Asylum. Language Assessment Quarterly 2009;6(1):1-5.

(30)

www.fhi.no

Utgitt av Folkehelseinstituttet Februar 2016

Postboks 4404 Nydalen NO-0403 Oslo

Telefon: 21 07 70 00

Rapporten lastes ned gratis fra

Folkehelseinstituttets nettsider www.fhi.no