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Department of EconomicsUniversity of Oslo MEMORANDUM

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MEMORANDUM

No 09/2000

Influencing Bureaucratic Decisions

By

Nils-Henrik M. Von der Fehr and Lone Semmingsen

ISSN: 0801-1117

Department of Economics

University of Oslo

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This series is published by the University of Oslo

Department of Economics

In co-operation with

The Frisch Centre for Economic Research

P. O.Box 1095 Blindern N-0317 OSLO Norway Telephone: + 47 22855127 Fax: + 47 22855035

Internet: http://www.sv.uio.no/sosoek/

e-mail: econdep@econ.uio.no

Gaustadalleén 21 N-0371 OSLO Norway

Telephone: +47 22 95 88 20 Fax: +47 22 95 88 25

Internet: http://www.frisch.uio.no/

e-mail: frisch@frisch.uio.no

List of the last 10 Memoranda:

No 08 By Geir B. Aasheim and Martin Dufwenberg: Deductive Reasoning in Extensive Games. 22 p.

No 07 By Geir B. Asheim and Martin Dufwenberg: Admissibility and Common Belief. 29 p.

No 06 By Nico Keilman: Demographic Translation: From Period to Cohort Perspective and Back. 17 p.

No 05 By Pål Longva and Oddbjørn Raaum: Earnings Assimilation of Immigrants in Norway – A Reappraisal. 28 p.

No 04 By Jia Zhiyang: Family Labor Supply when the Husband is Eligible for Early Retirement: Some Empirical Evidences.

54 p.

No 03 By Mads Greaker: Strategic Environmental Policy; Eco- dumping or a green strategy? 33 p

No 02 By Ole J. Røgeberg: Married Men and Early Retirement Under the AFP Scheme. 78 p.

No 01 By Steinar Holden: Monetary regime and the co-ordination of wage setting. 35 p.

No 38 By Knut Røed: Relative Unemployment Rates and Skill-Biased Technological Change. 24 p.

No 37 By Finn R. Førsund: Modelling Transboundary air Pollution:

The RAINS model approach. 33 p.

A complete list of this memo-series is available in a PDF® format at:

http://www..sv.uio.no/sosoek/memo/

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