Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms

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Teachers’ Skillful Coping with

Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms

Informal Conversations and School Climate

Lina Marie Sletholt

Masteroppgave

Institutt for spesialpedagogikk Det utdanningsvitenskapelige fakultet

UNIVERSITETET I OSLO

Vår 2020

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Informal Conversations and School Climate Lina Sletholt http://www.duo.uio.no/

Print: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo

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Summary

Background

This Master’s thesis is a part of the research project “Teachers Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms”, led by professor Liv

Duesund. I have had the privilege to take part in this project, which focuses on how teachers in Norwegian and American classrooms cope with and approach disruptive behavior in the classroom context. The most recent Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study was the first to investigate not only students’ academic skills but their social and

emotional state (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). This revealed that even though most students (85%) report feeling happy most of the time, about 6% of students in the PISA 2018 assessment reported always feeling sad (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). The PISA 2018 report indicates that a positive school climate is important for student's well-being, but what exactly defines a positive school climate? This study aims to investigate the connection between informal conversations between teachers and school climate.

Research question

The aim of this study has been to explore teachers own reflections regarding informal conversations with fellow teachers. The following research questions was developed for this purpose:

In which ways can informal conversations between teachers affect the school climate?

Sub-related research questions:

Which functions do informal conversations between teachers serve in coping with disruptive behavior?

In which ways can informal conversations between teachers influence disruptive behavior in students?

Methodology

This thesis is part of the larger research project “Teachers Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms”, I was required to apply a qualitative research approach. This was done by conducting semi-structured interviews with three teachers in the United States working at a public High School. Lastly, a phenomenological approach has been utilized in the analysis.

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Results

The findings from this study suggest that informal conversations between teachers regarding students occur. Informal conversations between teachers regarding students were investigated as a way for teachers for emotionally coping with disruptive behavior. Utilizing the definition from the larger research project, disruptive behavior understood in this study as a breach with expectations. The definition is: “Any behavior that is perceived as sufficiently off-task in the classroom so as to distract the teachers and/or class-peers from learning activities.” (Duesund

& Ødegård, 2018a, p. 411; 2018b, p. 141). In which ways informal conversations between teachers could serve a constructive purpose by emotionally coping with disruptive behavior, subsequently launching mentalization between students and teachers, has been examined. In sum, teachers may need to cope with disruptive behavior emotionally with the support of other teachers and the school as a whole, also, to cope with disruptive behavior directly in the classroom. All participating teachers brought up apologizing to their students´, as a way to cope with disruptive behavior. Apologizing to students is here regarded as a measure teachers take to cope with disruptive behavior directly to the students. Teachers who mentalize with their students, and take responsibility for uncomfortable situations seem to recognize factors beyond the school context that affects the social environment in their classroom. Teachers need to cope with the emotional hardship disruptive behavior can serve, and attend to their well-being in the job. Acknowledging these conversations as a reality and possible

constructive way for teachers to cope could arguably open up for further investigation on the topic. Nevertheless, these informal conversations between teachers regarding students could have negative consequences in the form of weakening the relationship between the student and teacher.

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Acknowledgement

There are several people who deserve to be acknowledged and appreciated for guiding me through the process of this thesis. First, I would like to thank my supervisor Liv Duesund, for allowing me to take part in this project and for the possibility to attend University of

California, Berkeley. This journey challenged me and made me grow both academically and personally. Thank you for your tremendous support and for challenging me throughout the process, I greatly appreciate it.

Secondly, I want to thank all the participants for taking part in this project and trusting me with their experiences and reflections. I sincerely hope I have given them justice, and this project would not be the same without you.

Finally, I want to thank my friends, family and partner Bror. Thank you for your immense support both in my decision to travel to Berkeley, and through the challenges encountered during the semester due to the pandemic. Your constant encouragement throughout my studies has been invaluable to me, for that I owe you a huge thank you.

Lina Marie Sletholt Oslo, June 2020

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Sennett (2003, p. 59) illustrates how it in social life exists an enormous gap between wanting to act well towards others and doing so in practice. While teachers may intend to do good in their work with students, they need to know how to accomplish that purpose. In this study, the social environment of the school is perceived as an indicator of teachers' influence on students. The terms school climate, classroom climate, social environment, and social systems could be considered overlying terms, used concerning social structures (Dewey, 2004, p. 9; Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a, p. 411; Johnson, 1997, p. 13; NSCC, 2007, p. 5;

OECD, 2019). Social systems and social environment are sociological terms commonly used for describing social practices in society. In the school context, terms such as school climate, school culture, or learning environment are more commonly applied (OECD, 2019). The term school climate will be utilized in this study when addressing the social environment in

school. The term classroom climate may also be applied when discussing the classroom context specifically (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a, p. 411). Reflections regarding the choice of school climate as a topic in this study will be presented in the next part.

How we present oneself in a social environment, how we talk to and about each other, will influence the social environment and the people existing in it. In school, teachers obtain the potential to form social structures existing in the school. Students, however, could be perceived as having less, if any, power to change these structures. Especially, could it be argued, is this the case for students who breach the expectations following the student role.

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For example, students demonstrating disruptive behavior in class. Teachers will expect students to practice the student role adequately while together in the school context. What happens to teachers when students breach with the expectations following the student role by demonstrating disruptive behavior? When examining the topic of teachers' informal

conversations in school, and in which ways these may affect the school climate, I do not assume that teachers have intentions to create a negative school climate. I am merely interested in the teacher's reflections concerning the phenomenon of informal conversations between teachers in school. Which functions may these conversations serve for teachers? I reckon, as in daily life, conversations can take a negative turn, and teachers may find

themselves speaking about students with other teachers in a negative tone. How may teachers talking about students with other teachers influence the school climate? These questions are what triggered my interest to investigate the phenomenon of informal conversations between teachers, how these conversations may affect the school climate, and subsequently how the school climate could influence disruptive behavior in students. By investigating this topic, the aim is to characterize a positive and sustainable school climate further.

1.2 Theme

In modern society, education serves as the admittance for a substantial future (Bø &

Hovdenak, 2011, p. 70). The most recent Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study was the first to investigate not only students’ academic skills, but their more general social and emotional state (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). This revealed that even though most students (85%) report feeling happy most of the time, about 6% of students in the PISA 2018 assessment reported always feeling sad (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). Besides, the PISA 2018 report displays a close association between school life and the well-being of 15-year-old students (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). The PISA 2018 report also indicates that school climate plays a role for parents when choosing a school for their children (Schleicher, 2018, p. 48). In total, the PISA 2018 report indicates that a positive school climate is important both for parents' decisions in which school they choose for their children, and for student's well-being, but what exactly defines a positive school climate? The physical condition of the school establishes the foundation for the school climate. Therefore, classrooms should be furnished in a way that is functional for both students and the teacher and promotes learning (Ogden, 2016, p. 132). Foremost is the school climate affected by the people who interact in it, and

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how they interact with each other. Students and teachers spend considerable time together in school, and together they directly structure the school climate.

Informal conversations with other teachers could serve as a possibility for professional development for teachers (Jones & Dexter, 2014, pp. 6-7). Thomson (2015) conducted a study examining informal conversations between faculties as a potential for faculties' academic development. His study shows how informal conversations between teachers can be a way to learn and evolve as a teacher, and hence represent opportunities for teachers' academic development (Thomson, 2015). Based on the PISA 2018 report, the tone of conversations in the corridors is considered an indication of the school climate (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). Based on this find, schools, where teachers talk about their students in a negative tone in the corridors, could be argued as an indicator of a negative school climate.

Nevertheless, this study recognizes that school climate consists of various aspects, and informal conversations between teachers are not an exclusive indicator of the school climate.

Some contextual factors possibly influencing the school climate outside the school will also be discussed in this study.

1.3 Research Questions

This study is based on an exploration of teachers' reflections regarding the school climate, concentrated around the topic of informal interactions between teachers. Based on this topic, I have the following research question:

In which ways can informal conversations between teachers affect the school climate?

Sub-related research questions:

Which functions do informal conversations between teachers serve in coping with disruptive behavior?

In which ways can informal conversations between teachers influence disruptive behavior in students?

This study intends to examine teachers' reflections concerning these topics. Based on the teacher's reflections, this study aims to examine which functions informal conversations between teachers serve in coping with disruptive behavior. Furthermore, in which ways the

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school climate may influence disruptive behavior in the classroom will be examined.

Informal conversations between teachers will be a topic of exploration in the context of how the school climate could be affected by these conversations. A phenomenological approach will be applied when analyzing the teacher's reflections. The basis for using this theoretical approach is the study’s exploratory approach. The basis for using this theoretical approach in the analysis is the study’s overall exploratory approach. A phenomenological approach will allow the teacher's subjective experience to emerge (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 45).

1.4 Disposition

I will begin this thesis by briefly describing the different parts. In the first part, I will define the theoretical framework, which forms the basis for this study. The social environment in the school, here referred to as the school climate, is the main topic in this study and will be defined in the first part of the theoretical framework. In the next section, the teacher-student relationship, and which role it plays concerning the school climate will be covered.

Subsequently, expectations following the teachers' role, and the student role will be explored, with a particular focus on students breaching with these expectations by demonstrating disruptive behavior. Lastly in the theoretical framework is a brief presentation of mentalization in the school context. Here, the focus lies on social interaction and how humans assign meaning to their own and others’ actions. Next, a thorough description of the methodology and process of the conduction of this study will be provided. Relevant topics such as sampling, transcription, and how the interviews were conducted will be presented here. Ethical considerations will be discussed, as well as validity, reliability, and

generalizability. Subsequently, I will analyze the interviews by presenting the findings, which I will discuss within the basis of the theoretical outline. Lastly, I will provide a summary of the main findings, along with some critical insights and thoughts on further exploration of the topic.

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2 Theoretical Framework

The following chapter consists of the theoretical framework of this study. I will present a sociocultural understanding of disruptive behavior, by seeing it in the context it appears.

Contextual factors affecting teachers and students will be brought forward in this part. The background for teachers' informal conversations with other teachers regarding students forms a necessary backdrop for the discussion of the function of these conversations for the

teachers. The school as a social environment, defined here as the school climate, will be presented first. Within the social community of the school, the teacher-student relationship, and the importance of this relationship will be brought forward. Next, an exploration of role expectations regarding teachers and students, and the idea of disruptive behavior breaching with the student role is presented. Lastly, a brief definition of mentalization in the school context is brought forward.

2.1 Social Environments

“We are always participating in something larger than ourselves, and if we want to understand social life and what happened to people in it, we have to understand what it is that we´re participating in and how we participate in it.” (Johnson, 1997, p. 13).

The school represents a social environment, which both teachers and students exist and interact with each other. In the social system of the school, teachers interact with other teachers, administrative staff, and students. Teachers are not alone in the school, neither physically nor socially. John Dewey wrote: “we never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment.” (2004, p. 18). Therefore, as shown in the writing above from Allan G. Johnson (1997, p. 13), it can be argued that teachers need to be aware of their role in their environment to fully understand how they educate and influence their students. This is also applicable for when teachers are not actively teaching the class. Within this view, teachers and students are assumed to interact with each other actively, as opposed to

passively observing each other’s life (Ødegård, 2014, p. 204). The term being-in-the-world, originally composed by the philosopher Heidegger, refers to humans always being in active relation to the world (Ødegård, 2019, p. 2). Ødegård (2019, p. 2) has developed this concept further by presenting the term being-in-school to describe the relationship between students and the school. This term may be applied for teachers as well, as they too spend considerable time in school.

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There are certain expectations ingrained in the social environment of the school. These expectations feature how the teacher should act, and how the students should act, in line with the social norms existing in the school. These expectations would also apply for when

students and teachers are no longer in class, yet still together in the school context. Teachers and students continue to interact with each other dynamically and influence each other

activities while together in the school context (Ødegård, 2014, p. 204). How the social system of the school operates, including power structures and norms, are at the core of the school climate. The social systems operate regardless of our awareness of it. Yet, studying these interactions could provide knowledge regarding the school climate. Considering the tone of the informal conversations happening in the hallways in the school could be a part of investigating hallmarks of the school climate (NSCC, 2007; OECD, 2019). The PISA 2018 report indicates that a positive school climate is important both for parents' decisions in which school they choose for their children, and the student's well-being, but what exactly identifies a positive school climate? These questions bring about the next part, which covers the theme of the school climate in greater detail.

2.1.1 School Climate

The PISA 2018 report indicates a close connection between the school climate and students' well-being in school (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47). A positive school climate is referred to, in the PISA 2018 report, as difficult to measure, but easy to recognize (Schleicher, 2018, p. 47).

Indications of a positive school climate are further defined in the PISA 2018 report, as the tone of conversations in the corridors of the school, the state of the school´s physical facilities, the enthusiasm showed by school staff, and student interactions with each other (OECD, 2019). School climate as a term is often used to analyze the idea of contextual factors in school could affect students learning (Smith, Connolly, & Pryseski, 2014, p. 1).

The National School Climate Center (NSCC) defines school climate as “the quality and character of school life”, further describing some characteristics of a positive school climate to include norms, interpersonal relationships, and learning (NSCC, 2007, p. 5). Here, the school climate is defined by the definition from The National School Climate Center (2007, p. 5) as the quality and character of school life.

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Ødegård (2014, p. 207) presents the term “moods” to describe the character of the school context. Moods described here as feelings, such as depression or happiness, and how these feelings affect our entire view of the world (Ødegård, 2019, p. 3). Moods in this context operate beyond the emotions of happiness or depression as they are general, and affect our entire worldview. Moods could be argued relevant in this context, operating as a link in understanding the content of the school climate. Up to this point, it has been challenging to put into words precisely what makes a school climate positive. It appears to be a feeling, or sense, of a positive environment as opposed to a specific measure that could be quantitatively measured. Yet, the tone of the conversations in the hallways has been mentioned as a sign of the school climate. Ahead of undertaking the specific matter of teachers informal

conversations possibly affecting the school climate in the analysis, a brief presentation of other contextual factors that could affect the school climate is in order.

Poverty amongst children in the United States is a contextual factor affecting the school climate. Poverty among children in the United States as a whole was at 21.1% in 2014 (McCarty, 2016, p. 1). In the study these statistics are gathered from, child poverty was defined as children under the age of 18, living in families with income below the federal poverty line (McCarty, 2016, p. 1). A distinction between ethnicities could be observed in the issue of child poverty. Children identified as non-Hispanic Black or African Americans had the highest rates of child poverty (38%), whereas children labeled as non-Hispanic, White, or Asian and Pacific Islander (both 13%) had the lowest rates (McCarty, 2016, p. 3). The difference in poverty between ethnicities could be argued reflects past and present,

occurrences, and discrimination (McCarty, 2016, p. 4). The topic of racial inequality will not be discussed further in this context, not to be confused with this topic not being of importance in the school context. Success in school could be understood as the admittance for a

substantial future in today’s society, and thus, the possibility to liberate from poverty (Bø &

Hovdenak, 2011, p. 70). Yet, an observable difference is in place between children from low- income families and non-low-income families in school (McCarty, 2016, p. 4). A study suggests at the time children from low-income families (bottom income quintile) turn 14 years old, they extend a full academic year behind their peers (top income quintile) (McCarty, 2016, pp. 6-7).

Being far behind their academic peers could lead to negative feelings, such as feelings of

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for students from differing social classes should not be confused with parents not interested in the academic success of their children. Parents in lower-class families are equally

interested in their children’s success in school, but they seek to fulfill this goal by practicing other methods (Lareau, 2011, p. 198). For example, parents from working-class and poverty- stricken families are more reluctant to demand teachers, and they often don’t interfere with their children’s schoolwork for the reason of not wanting to “do the wrong thing” (Lareau, 2011, p. 198). Teachers, however, tend to favor parents who demand more from them (Lareau, 2011, p. 198). These factors could lead to higher expectations towards the teacher, as they are expected to give individually altered education to fulfill the ideal of an inclusive school(Lareau, 2011, p. 3; Ogden, 2016, p. 94).

2.2 The Teacher-Student Relationship

A basis of trust between teacher and student could be argued as vital for a positive school climate, affecting the student's well-being and academic development. Parliamentary Report 22 from the Norwegian Storting (2010-2011) presents a documented connection between students’ academic accomplishments and their learning environment (Ogden, 2016, p. 131).

For students to feel psychologically safe at school, and consequently evolve academically, a basis of trust between teacher and student is essential (Lund, 2012, p. 124; Skårderud &

Duesund, 2014, p. 159). This basis of trust provides support for students to let their teachers know when they experience a variety of challenges, as well as take in learning (Lund, 2012, p. 124). If this basis of trust and sense of psychological safety is lacking, it cannot be

expected of the student to gain knowledge in school (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 159). It could be argued this basis of trust acts as the groundwork for a positive teacher-student relationship.

A positive teacher-student relationship includes to which degree students perceive the teacher listens to and understands them (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, p. 79). This subjective feeling of being understood from the student's perspective is crucial, and can therefore not be measured from the teachers perspective. The PISA 2018 report (OECD, 2019) suggests that 15-year-old students, may not consciously evaluate their school climate in the same way adults do.

Nonetheless, students sense the school climate in their everyday life in the school, in interactions with both teachers and other students (OECD, 2019). In a school environment where bullying is rare, making new friends is relatively simple, and establishing respectful

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and genuine relationships with teachers serves as the norm. A significant positive impact could be observed regarding students' well-being, as well as their academic achievements (OECD, 2019). Consequently, students with a positive relationship with their teachers, and teachers that convey understanding and friendliness towards their students, achieve better academic progress in their class (Pianta, 2006 in Ogden, 2016, p. 134). Students experiencing a positive teacher-student relationship earn academic skills to surpass the students lacking this positive relationship with their teachers. Besides, the students with a positive connection to their teachers get their emotional needs met, by feeling they are in a safe environment (Bø

& Hovdenak, 2011, p. 159). Based on these statements, it could be argued that establishing a positive school climate by enforcing positive relations between students and teachers, will affect students' well-being and their academic success.

2.3 Role Expectations

The teacher-student relationship lays the foundation for interactions between teachers and students, as well as interactions between teachers regarding students. As previously noted, for students to feel psychologically safe in the school, and hence absorb academic learning, a basis of trust between the teacher and their students is necessary (Lund, 2012, p. 124;

Skårderud & Duesund, 2014). To accomplish this foundation of trust and psychological safety, teamwork between teachers and students is essential. Students may contribute to this foundation by attending school regularly, treat other students and teachers respectfully, and not engage in disruptive behaviors during class (OECD, 2019). As disruptive behavior in school serves as one of the biggest concerns in schools today, some students breach these expectations (Ødegård, 2014, p. 204). Disruptive behavior does not seem to provoke feelings of embarrassment in the students engaging in such activities, yet breaches with expectations and social norms in the school (Duesund, 2017, p. 158). Teachers engaging in informal conversations regarding students with other teachers could be argued breaches with the expectations following the teacher's role. Notably, should these conversations be defined as a breach with expectations, this includes a negative tone present in these conversations. A presentation of insights into social expectations in the school, and how some behavior

happens regardless of the behavior breaching with these expectations, will be presented in the following part.

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2.3.1 The Student Role

The rapid change of society involves a shift in the role students are expected to manage, both in school and social life generally. In school, there are expectations in place for skills students are expected to manage, from coping with emotions to specific academic skills such as

reading (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a, p. 410). Mastery of the student role involves fulfilling these expectations put forward by the school (Ogden, 2016, p. 14). Students in today’s

modern society are faced with seemingly unlimited opportunities. Simultaneously, students in today’s society could be argued to have limited realistic opportunities. For this reason, the individual pressure on youth to shape their future is rapidly increasing (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, p. 70). In the following, some societal context into the discussion of fulfilling the student role.

Children from middle-class families are frequently raised in a process identified by Lareau (2011, pp. 2-3) as concerted cultivation, working-class and low-income families often facilitate the accomplishment of natural growth in their child-rearing. Raising children in the process of concerted cultivation involves a substantial amount of adult-organized activities for children. Additionally, parents facilitating concerted cultivation tend to focus on their children’s feelings, thoughts, and opinions when conversing with their child (Lareau, 2011, p.

3). Parents facilitating the accomplishment of natural growth do not organize activities for their children to the same extent, and the children are mostly free to play with friends and relatives in their neighborhood (Lareau, 2011, p. 3). Additionally, parents facilitating the accomplishment of natural growth tend to give children directives as opposed to conversing regarding their children’s opinions and feelings (Lareau, 2011, p. 3). By facilitating the accomplishment of natural growth, successful child-rearing is just that, an accomplishment of the children’s natural growth. The above-mentioned clues are some ways these approaches to child-rearing vary, yet children from all families come together in the school context.

For children raised according to the accomplishment of natural growth, school is not congruent with their everyday-life, as schools in the United States generally prefer approaches recognized from concerted cultivation (Lareau, 2011, p. 3). This points to

students from homes facilitating concerted cultivation, to a greater extent, progress in school, as their school life resembles their home life. In some way, children raised in families

facilitating concerted cultivation comes into school already prepared for the expectations of the school context. On the other end, children from homes facilitating the accomplishment of

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natural growth has been seen to have, as Lareau (2011, p. 3) puts it: “an emerging sense of distance, distrust, and constraint in their institutional experiences”. This points to children possibly being marginalized in school, as they don´t master the role of a student as smoothly as their peers. Additionally, findings from a Norwegian study found students in families associated with lower economical class less frequently report fitting into the social

community of their school (Duesund, 2017, p. 168). As a result, an unequal level of trust in the school could be observed in parents from diverse social classes.

Factors outside the school could affect disruptive behavior inside the school, here

exemplified in social class affiliation. A sociocultural understanding of disruptive behavior claims if disruptive behavior is a breach with the social norms in the school, this requires the classroom to be initially labeled as a social community (Duesund, 2017, p. 156). This

community requires known rules for adequate behavior, whereas disruptive behavior breaching with these rules for behavior A social community, could be argued, requires students to have a sense of social connection. Studies from the U.S. and Norway points in the direction of differences between social class affiliation more in line with a divided social system in the classroom (Duesund, 2017, p. 168). A comprehensive understanding of factors both inside, and outside, the school affecting students, and in extension the school climate, could be argued necessary to understand what the school climate consists of. Here, in which ways the specific factor of informal conversations between teachers regarding students could affect disruptive behavior will be explored.

2.3.2 Teacher´s Role

The teacher profession is often demanding work and could lead to stressful work-life (Idsøe, Bru, & Øverland, 2017, p. 294). Teachers in modern society are expected to create a social community within their class, have a variety of different activities in their teaching repertory, and form positive relations to all their students (Duesund, 2017, p. 169; Ogden, 2016, p. 94).

The amount of work expected of them could be considered overwhelming, as they inhabit the societal responsibility teaching serve. Yet, teachers are not always referred to as having a positive influence on students. For example, as seen in the discussion following the PISA report from 2004, society deemed teachers were to blame for the considerable prevalence of disruptive behavior in schools (Duesund, 2017, pp. 158-159). This discussion outlined a negative school climate, where students suffered the consequences (Duesund, 2017, p. 160).

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When studying the background of the findings closer, it was unveiled not only the students suffered the consequences of a school climate characterized by disruptive behavior, it had a negative effect on the teachers as well (Duesund, 2017, p. 160).

Teachers succeeding in their work requires a school administration that makes sure a support system is in place for the teachers is needed (Duesund, 2017, p. 162). Teachers may reach a limit to how much they can give of themselves to support their students. This limit could be argued as being shorter for teachers not experiencing support in their environment. A support system helping teachers cope with their work could help counterbalance this factor (Idsøe et al., 2017, p. 294). Additionally to the support system teachers need to tend to their well-being by reflecting upon what they can do to strengthen their mental health (Idsøe et al., 2017, p.

294). These factors could support teachers in preserving their spirit, in extension, equip them better to help students experiencing mental health problems (Idsøe et al., 2017, p. 294). This structure requires a common understanding between the teachers and the administration regarding what the school system should attend to, and what teachers need to attend to themselves (Duesund, 2017, p. 162).

Ogden (2016, p. 26) claims: “there are students who struggle in school, students the school struggles with, and problematic schools”. Several factors influence the school climate, and characterizing schools as being “problematic” may do more harm than good (Ogden, 2016, p.

26). Looking into what characterizes a positive and sustainable school climate consists of could be a more constructive way to go about (Ogden, 2016, p. 26). Teachers working in what they define as supportive schools report greater satisfaction in their work, as well as less burnout as opposed to teachers working in less supportive environments (OECD, 2019).

Teachers may experience emotional reactions from their work with students. For example, disruptive behavior in school has been considered one of the biggest factors of everyday stress for teachers in international studies (Duesund, 2017, p. 160). To cope with these

feelings, the teachers may feel the need to discuss their experiences with other teachers (Idsøe et al., 2017, p. 295). These conversations could fall under the definition of informal

conversations between teachers regarding students, which is the main topic of exploration in this study.

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2.4 Disruptive Behavior

Disruptive behavior is considered one of the biggest issues in school in modern times, and represent a source of stress for both students and teachers (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a, p.

410; Ogden, 2016, p. 14; Ødegård, 2014, p. 204). Duesund (2017, p. 172) suggests disruptive behavior may be considered an impaired capability in coping with expectations from society.

Therefore, disruptive behavior should be understood in the context it happens in, and not as an individual issue within the student (Befring & Duesund, 2012, pp. 464-465). In this study, disruptive behavior is defined in line with the larger research project. The definition is: “Any behavior that is perceived as sufficiently off-task in the classroom so as to distract the

teachers and/or class-peers from learning activities.” (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a, p. 411;

2018b, p. 141). An international study finished in 2016 regarding disruptive behavior, suggest approximately 2/3 students in The U.S. and Norway report experiencing disruptive behavior in the classroom to a large extent (Duesund, 2017, p. 157). The same study observed that disruptive behavior appears to spread in the classroom, and teachers attempting to stop disruptive behavior have a limited effect (Duesund, 2017, p. 157).

A Norwegian research project, conducted with Norwegian High School students, found students believe their teachers tend to discriminate students demonstrating disruptive behavior (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, pp. 79-80). Disruptive behavior defined in this case as students who tend to interrupt ongoing instruction (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, pp. 79-80).

Students interviewed experienced this as unfair to the students demonstrating disruptive behavior, yet simultaneously expressing understanding towards teachers reacting towards disruptive behavior (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, p. 80). The students participating in the study, who themselves had expressed disruptive behavior in school, spoke about how difficult it was to change the teacher's perception of them, and subsequently being met with understanding from their teachers (Bø & Hovdenak, 2011, p. 80). First impressions of others awake emotions, and are affected by past and present experiences (Lund, 2012, p. 36). Observed behavior in others will, therefore, spark a certain response in ourselves (Lund, 2012, p. 36).

Changing this first impression is challenging, as this requires further nuances in our understanding of the world, to change our mental working models (Lund, 2012, p. 37).

Supporting the claim from students in the previously mentioned study, and provides valuable insight into the students' experiences.

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Students demonstrating disruptive behavior may demand a substantial amount of attention from their teachers, and teachers need to work proactively to prevent disruptive behavior (Ogden, 2016, p. 144). Additionally, teachers sometimes need to take measures to actively stop disruptive behavior, in addition to working proactively (Ogden, 2016, p. 155). The active, and proactive, measures teachers take in coping with disruptive behavior could be summed up in the term class management (Ogden, 2016, p. 127). Suggesting teachers are compelled to give students unlimited attention and sympathy, could be considered to be a too big task. As Sennett (2003, p. 147) suggests, everyone will at one point reach their limit in regards to giving. Students not conforming to the expectations of the student role, for a variety of reasons, could experience the school as more burdensome than their peers. In extension affecting their peers, and the teacher, negatively. Teachers may accommodate this situation by utilizing class management abilities. Additionally, mentalization could be employed in coping with disruptive behavior.

2.5 Mentalization

Mentalization is defined in this study as understanding our own and others' minds,

simultaneously being about them, and us (Lund, 2012, p. 89; Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p.

152). The act of mentalization often described as “seeing others from within, and oneself from the outside” (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 153). Mentalization concerns striving to understand each other and involve tuning in on our own and other’s needs (Lund, 2012, p.

88). In reality, we may never fully understand others' perspectives because the life-world needs to be experienced first-handed to do so. Life-world described here as the world we experience in our everyday life, which we take for granted in all aspects of life and serves as the basis for all human experiences and reflections (Duesund, 1995, p. 34). As the life-world needs to be experienced to be fully understood, science can never be identical to the life- world (Duesund, 1995, p. 34). This study acknowledges that a reflexive exploration of teacher's experiences will not be identical to their lived life-world. Nevertheless, by utilizing mentalization through open reflection, we may understand one another more competently (Lund, 2012, p. 89).

Mentalization understood as to how humans understand others, and their own, actions as a result of intentions, wishes, and values are in practice a reflexive act (Lund, 2012, p. 88).

Mentalization could also be understood as a spontaneous act, how we almost automatically

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perceive other people in relation to our self (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 153). The act of spontaneous mentalization happens all the time in our daily life, for example, in everyday conversations with colleagues (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 153). In the event of the conversation shifting into a more troublesome conversation, for example, sparked by a

misunderstanding, we can apply an explicit form of mentalization to repair the once collapsed mentalization (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 154). One way to apply an explicit form of mentalization is by asking ourselves, and the other people participating in the conversation, what just happened in our conversation that made it so burdensome? (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 154). Perhaps could a teacher, seeing themselves in a troublesome exchange with another teacher, uses explicit mentalization as a tool to reflect upon the intention of the conversation. For example, reflecting upon, what was the intention to get out of this

interaction with my colleague? Yet, it is crucial to recognize that this could only be applied if the teacher recognizes the conversation as being burdensome in the first place.

Mentalization could also be a topic in teachers' interactions with students. To empathize with others could be considered a core activity for building positive relations to others, based on trust and a sense of psychological safety. The relation of trust-building when the teacher mentalizes with their student opens up for the student to take in academic and emotional learning (Skårderud & Duesund, 2014, p. 159). Students who have hurtful experiences in their background, possibly bullying or living in a negative home environment, may have a weakened mentalization capacity (Lund, 2012, p. 95). Forming a positive relation to students with more difficult backgrounds may demand a higher mentalization capacity in the teacher.

This could also result in further misunderstandings, as it could serve more difficult to

mentalize with someone with a life-world very different from our own. Mentalization will in this study be utilized for understanding what function informal conversations between teachers regarding students may have for the teachers. Besides, mentalization will be a topic when exploring how teachers form relations with their students.

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3 Methodology

This study is a part of the larger research project “Teachers´ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms” led by Professor Liv Duesund. This research project aims to compare how teachers in Norwegian and American classrooms cope with disruptive behavior by interviewing teachers.

The word method in methodology derives from the term “the road to the goal” (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, p. 140). The theme and background of the study form an outline of possible research methods that could be applied. Teachers' reflections on school climate and in which ways informal conversations between teachers may affect the school climate is the topic of exploration in this study. Accordingly, a qualitative methodology is an appropriate approach in this study. The research method in this study is in line with the larger research project, applying semi-structured interviews to collect data. In the next part of this thesis, I will present the methodological process in this study. This includes a description, and discussion, of qualitative research, phenomenology in qualitative research, interview as a research method, the transcription process, and analysis approach. Validity, reliability, and generalizability, possible limitations, and ethical considerations in this study will be addressed as well.

3.1 Qualitative Research

Scientific studies aim to contribute insight into relevant concepts, thus contribute to the elimination of misconceptions regarding a specific topic (Befring, 2015, p. 10). Research methods, in educational sciences, could be categorized into three main categories:

quantitative, historical, and qualitative methods (Befring, 2015, p. 37). A mixed-methods approach could be argued as a fourth category, utilizing components from two or more of the previously mentioned categories (Befring, 2015, p. 37). Diverse methodological approaches should not be regarded as different ways to reach the same goal. It is contrasting benefits to the various methods, and they are best used to address different types of research questions (Maxwell, 2013, p. 29). Research questions that have the words how or in which ways are generally likely to be relevant to interviews as a method (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 135).

Still, recognized research methods in all mentioned categories can contribute to valuable and reliable examinations of concepts (Befring, 2015, p. 41). For research that aims to explore a

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unique phenomenon, and how people cope in their real-world settings, a qualitative research design is an applicable approach (Befring, 2015, p. 39; Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 19;

Yin, 2016, p. 3). Conducting qualitative research means studying people's lives through representing participant's views and perspectives from their real-world position (Yin, 2016, p.

9). A qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews was chosen in this study, based on the research questions and guidelines form the larger research project.

3.2 The Interview Method

The interview could be described in literal terms, inter-view, meaning a dialogue between two people sharing their views about a specific topic (Kvale, 2007, p. 6). The research interview deviates from an everyday conversation by the distinct purpose a research interview serves. Additionally, an interview involves an uneven power balance in the conversation. First, the researcher applies specific techniques and approaches when

conducting an interview, possibly amplifying an uneven power balance (Kvale, 2007, p. 6).

The research interview deviates from an everyday conversation by the distinct purpose a research interview serves. Additionally, an interview involves an uneven power balance in the conversation. First, the researcher applies specific techniques and approaches when conducting an interview, possibly amplifying an uneven power balance (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 46). An uneven power balance could influence the answers given in the interview, as the participants may choose to hold back information. Being aware of how the uneven power structure may affect the participants, and subsequently, the data obtained is an important part of the role of an interviewer.

Techniques frequently utilized in interviews, include the employment of an interview guide, addressing specific themes in conversation. The interview guide in this study was provided by the larger research project and consisted of 14 questions divided into 4 categories. The categories are as follows: (1)questions about your experience of disruptive behavior in school, (2)questions about how you cope with disruptive behavior, (3)questions about your profession as a teacher, and (4)questions about classroom management. I could add a few questions, and subsequently added three questions specific to my research questions. These are question 4: When you experience disruptive behavior during class, how does this affect you when you leave the classroom? 16: How do you think teachers talking in a negative manner about students that are not present in the conversation could affect the school

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climate? and 17: What do you think could be done to avoid these conversations?. These questions lie under category (1) and (4) in the interview guide, the entire interview guide could be examined in Appendix 3.

The purpose of a qualitative research interview serves to get insights into a person's lived life from their perspective (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 42). Interviews can be strictly

structured, nearly resembling an in-person questionnaire. On the other hand, an interview can be loosely structured, only consisting of a few specific questions with participants speaking freely about a topic set by the researcher. Strictly structured interviews may amplify an uneven power structure (Maxwell, 2013, p. 88). Yet, the structure can help ensure stability in the answers, making the data more reliable for comparison (Maxwell, 2013, p. 88). Less structured approaches have the benefit of individual adaption, trading out generalizability, yet gaining internal validity (Maxwell, 2013, p. 88). Semi-structured interviews could be argued to lie in between the strictly structured and the loosely structured types of interviews.

Guidelines given from the larger research project was the backdrop for choosing semi- structured interviews in this study.

It could be argued the researcher's ability to listen to the participants is crucial when conducting interviews. Listening in this context, include tuning in on the environment by taking in the sense of the room, and the participant's mood (Yin, 2016, p. 28). The capacity to listen in qualitative research is a silent one, and the aim is to take in as much information about the situation as possible. Listening requires the researcher to be observant. Whilst the feeling of the room, or the tone the research subject, may be difficult to measure, it will provide information beyond the information given by the spoken word alone (Yin, 2016, p.

29). A research interview dominated by the researcher's own words and thoughts may miss important aspects. The participant's experiences may go unspoken, and unobserved,

subsequently serving as a missed opportunity for gaining knowledge (Yin, 2016, p. 28). I strived for the role of an active listener when conducting the interviews. This meant allowing quiet time to counteract the possibility of interrupting the teacher's stream of thoughts.

Besides, I encouraged the teachers by providing words of reassurance. Furthermore, I strived for a positive social atmosphere, allowing the teachers to share their experiences freely. I met with the teachers individually in their classroom and made sure to introduce myself with a smile. The interviews were conducted during lunch break, as this was presented as a suitable time to meet for all participants. The time window available for the interview was the

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duration of the lunch, 40 minutes in total. The interviews lasted between 21-29 minutes.

Nevertheless, I must be regarded as a beginner in the interviewer role and may have missed some opportunities for follow-up questions.

3.2.1 Recruitment Process and Sample

When conducting any research project, the researcher needs a sample of the population. A population is here understood as a bigger whole of subjects that the research involves (Befring, 2015, p. 126). It is common to extract a sample from the population the researcher wishes to investigate. The sample is extracted from the population as a whole and is seen as a representative of the population (Befring, 2015). Initiating the possibility for someone to participate in your study, and how this is done, is an important design decision as the

relationship to your participants is key to “gain access” to their experiences (Maxwell, 2013, p. 90). As the researcher is the main instrument of research in qualitative methods, the relationships the researcher forms with the participants directly affects the data obtained (Maxwell, 2013, p. 91). The recruitment process in this study started by getting in touch with a contact person also referred to as “gatekeepers”, who put me in touch with teachers

interested in taking part in the study fulfilling the inclusion criteria given from the larger research project this study is a part of (Maxwell, 2013, p. 90). This search ended up with three teachers working at American public High School that fitted the inclusion criteria and reported having time and interest to participate in the study. My sample consists of 3 teachers working at public High School in the U.S. Two of the teachers had an experience of 20 years or more of teaching, one of the teachers had 2 years of experience as a teacher. The teacher taught different classes, one was a Science teacher, one taught History, and the last teacher taught Social Studies. This point in the direction of my sample not being entirely

homogeneous, which could strengthen the findings.

3.3 Phenomenology in Qualitative Research

Phenomenology can serve as a research method in itself, or as a specialized type of variant in qualitative research (Yin, 2016, p. 8). Research based on phenomenology often includes conducting interviews, as the aim is to describe the lived experiences of people in their life- world (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 13). Phenomenology is employed, in this study, as a tool in analyzing the answers obtained from the interviews. A phenomenological approach intends to accomplish phenomenological reduction and refers to setting everything

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previously known regarding a topic aside and viewing the matter as genuinely as possible (Lund, 2012, p. 53). Consequently, phenomenologically based studies intend to describe the lived experiences of participants as described by the participants, without pre-understandings from the researcher (Lund, 2012; Yin, 2016). The basis for using a phenomenological

approach is this study’s exploratory approach. Through this methodological approach, the researcher seeks to collect descriptions from the interviewee's life-world (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, p. 46). The main purpose of this thesis is to explore teachers' reflections regarding informal conversations between teachers, and how these informal conversations may affect the school climate. A phenomenological approach will allow the teacher's subjective experience to emerge (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 45). My role as a researcher is, therefore, to be open to the participant's experiences without being implicated by my pre- understandings. In my analysis, a phenomenological approach will be utilized.

3.4 Transcription and Analysis

The interviews were recorded utilizing a dictaphone and later transcribed to ensure the most accurate representation. Transcription of verbal interviews into written text is vital for making the interviews available for analysis (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 204). To transcribe means to transform, when transforming verbal conversation into written text, the researcher may encounter several practical and principal issues (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 204-205). It is crucial to take into consideration that the transcript serves as a translation of the actual interviews into written text, and not the empirical data itself (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, p. 204). Transcription of verbal interviews might be characterized as a reduced, decontextualized representation of the original interviews (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 205). Moreover, transcribing verbal interviews into a written text gives the

researcher chance to structure the interviews, making them better fitted to analyze (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, p. 206). To summarize, transcription of verbal interviews could be

described as a necessary evil as it is not an optimal solution nor desirable to avoid. For me as a researcher, the most important thing is to be aware that transcription is not without issues, and actively taking these issues into account in both transcription and the following analysis.

Analysis as a word originated from the ancient Greek meaning to solve, in terms of

disentangling a considerable whole into manageable pieces (Anker, 2020, p. 17). In a broad definition of the term, the analysis consists of breaking up the data material into smaller,

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more manageable pieces along with choosing which of these pieces to utilize in the

discussion of the research questions (Anker, 2020, p. 17). Analysis of the transcriptions often begins with a categorization of the data, coding the data material into smaller segments as well as seeing larger patterns across the data material.

3.4.1 Coding

The coding of the data material often starts with breaking down the data into more manageable sections (Corbin & Strauss, 2014, p. 238). In the coding process, the data material is converted into more organized formats making it more comprehensible for the researcher (Payne & Payne, 2004, p. 36). The interviews lasted for 21-29 minutes and were all carried out at the school where the teachers worked. Right after the interviews, I took the time to write notes about the interview setting. This included my immediate thoughts,

physical factors, my sense of connection with the participants, and any other relevant factors.

I began the process of coding by reading thoroughly through the transcribed interviews to get a feeling of the participant's focus areas. As I did this, I made sure to supplement with my field notes from right after the interview. Next, I read the interviews one by one repeatedly, identifying possible categories and concepts within the data. Consequently, I marked parts of the interviews with colors based on possible categories. Eventually, I put each of the

participant's statements in definitive categories. After coding all three interviews using this method, I compared categories to determine differences, as well as getting an idea of larger patterns across the interviews. This form of coding can be labeled as microanalysis, a form of open coding, and might allow for a more exploratory approach to what the data could be telling (Corbin & Strauss, 2014, pp. 70-71).

Out of the coded categories across the interviews, I created three main parts in the analysis, with sub-related categories, to discuss the findings from this study. These are as follows;

school climate, the tone of the classroom, and mentalization. When coding material by breaking it into smaller segments, utilizing the smaller segments in the discussion of the research questions, it could be argued that focusing on parts of a whole can be problematic (Anker, 2020, p. 6). To counteract this issue, I will focus both on the smaller segments of coded categories, as well as consider bigger contexts and relations across the interviews throughout the analysis, as suggested by Anker (2020, p. 6).

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3.5 Reliability, Validity and Generalizability

When conducting research, the researcher needs to display the steps taken to ensure credibility and accuracy in the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 199). Reliability,

validity, and generalizability are core terms in this process. In the next chapter, I will address the steps I have taken to ensure the quality of this study by referring to topics related to reliability, validity, and generalizability.

3.5.1 Reliability

Reliability refers to the accuracy and stability of data obtained in research, referring to precision and possible error in measurements (Befring, 2015, p. 53). Reliability is, therefore, especially relevant in quantitative research design. Several methods exist for scoring the reliability of a study consisting of quantitative data material. Qualitative research is rarely possible to reproduce. For this reason, ensuring reliability trough measurement of precision and stability in the data material is challenging. In response to this, Befring (2015, p. 56) raises the question if reliability is an effective term to utilize in qualitative research altogether. Nonetheless, it could be proposed reliability in qualitative research could be measured in how reliable the documentation of the process is, as well as how thoroughly the transcription process is handled (Befring, 2015, p. 56).

The reliability of a study could be strengthened with accurate descriptions of the research process (Befring, 2015, p. 56). I have strived for accurate details of my steps in the methodological part of this study. These have been documented through my project plan before beginning this study, field notes along the way, and transcriptions. To strengthen the reliability of a qualitative study further, the researcher must thoroughly check the transcripted material. This is to ensure that the transcription does not include any obvious mistakes done in the process of transcribing (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 202). I have checked the transcription for any apparent errors and thoroughly read through the transcriptions multiple times to strengthen the accuracy in these presentations of the data material. It would be preferable, in terms of reliability, if others could check the transcription as well. Yet, this has not been practically conceivable to implement in this small-scale study. In qualitative

research, the researcher exists as the main research tool and could influence the findings considerably. I have remain aware of my potential influence on my participants, striving to avoid leading follow-up questions, and practicing the role of an active listener. In the

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analysis, I have been cautious to separate the participant's statements from my interpretations of these statements. Striving for the reader to have a clear view of this separation when reading the analysis.

3.5.2 Validity

The term validity refers to in which degree the data gives a realistic and truthful picture of the phenomenon it seeks to measure, and practically involves checking a study’s accuracy

(Befring, 2015, p. 51; Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 199). Various validity methods can be utilized to strengthen validity in qualitative research. However, validity cannot be ensured by simply practicing specific techniques or procedures (Maxwell, 2013, p. 121). Validity is often associated with quantitative research design. Some qualitative researchers, and scholars, have shown skepticism regarding the application of validity used concerning qualitative research methods (Maxwell, 2013, p. 122). Validity is in this study referred to, as Maxwell (2013, p.

122) puts it, “the correctness or credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation or other sorts of account”. Not to be confused with the results of this study representing an objective truth, simply that the rendering and discussion of the interviews in this study are described, interpreted, and concluded credibly.

When conducting interviews, the main instrument of measure is the researcher. Therefore, the main question of validity in qualitative research could be described as the amount

of researcher bias present in the study (Befring, 2015, p. 54). Researcher bias refers to the researcher's pre-understandings presence in the data material, and in the researcher's interpretations of the data material. To minimize researcher bias, it is essential to clarify in the analysis what is the actual transcribed data, and what is the researcher's interpretations of the data material (Befring, 2015, pp. 54-55). I have strived for transparency in the analysis regarding my interpretations and the participant's original transcribed statement. Exploring different interpretations of the data material would be a method of checking the data, which could strengthen the validity of the study (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 279-281). The more of these checking procedures being utilized on the data material, the stronger it persists in the process of validating the findings.

Another step the researcher may take to minimize researcher bias is clarifying bias explicitly.

Reflecting upon my own possible bias, and stating how my background may affect my

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interpretations, could strengthen the validity of my study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p.

200). This brings in a somewhat personal perspective, yet the background for doing so is to bring forward an honest, and open narrative for the reader. Thus also bringing forward a self- reflection that could strengthen the validity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 200). I have chosen not to bring in a personal narrative in the analysis part. I will, however, bring in a brief narrative regarding how I discovered the topic of informal conversations, and how it is relevant in schools, here. In my practical training during my education, I have been placed at several different schools. It caught my attention to how teachers in several schools openly discussed frustrations regarding students with other teachers. The fact that these

conversations occurred in front of me, as an outsider, got me thinking of how established these informal conversations are. All teachers were people I admired in their work with students, nevertheless, I could not help thinking how these conversations may provide a negative aspect to the social environment. My understanding of the subject has grown increasingly nuanced since then. Yet, this experience stimulated my interest in studying the topic of informal conversations between teachers regarding students, and how this may affect the school climate.

To describe the findings in great detail, bringing in information about the setting the data material was obtained and offering multiple perspectives on the theme, could further improve the validity of an interview study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 200). I have implemented this in my study by taking field notes and including them into the coding of the transcripted data material. Reporting factors such as setting the interview were in, the feeling of the room, and possible interruptions could provide insight into what the participants seek to express.

Kvale and Brinkmann (2018, p. 281) refer to validity as: “to validate is to question”. By questioning the data material, the researcher could increase the validity of a study. A critique frequently put forward consists of participants might not be telling an objective truth, and could therefore not provide valid information (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 281).

Nonetheless, participants rendering of their life-world may give us valid information about their experiences, and perceptions of the world, hence provide knowledge regardless of their recollections being defined as objective truth. I have been interested in the teacher's

reflections and thoughts in this study. Therefore, any objective truth in the data material is not of significance for the findings of this study.

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I have taken actions to strengthen validity throughout the process, from preparing my study, conducting interviews, and ultimately in analyzing the interviews. Nevertheless, by taking these validation measures into account, I have not eliminated these factors. A reflexive exploration of lived experiences will never be identical to the lived life-world. The intention must, therefore, be to come as close to the participant's life-world as possible and strive to understand their perspectives. Achieving this would strengthen the validity of the study.

Researcher bias will always be an issue in research where the researcher is the main instrument of measure. This section has not considered an extensive amount of validity methods, and some aspects of this topic may lack. Nevertheless, by reflecting upon my own possible bias as a researcher, and strive for a separation of the data material and my

interpretations, I intend to be open and honest in my research. Thus achieve satisfactory validity in my study.

3.5.3 Generalizability

After taking reliability and validity into consideration, generalizability is the next theme to address in this context. Generalizability in qualitative research is a term usually applied to a limited degree (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 202). A question to ask in this context is why, and how, to generalize qualitative data? (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 289-290). The why of this question relates to whether or not a study has to be generalizable to be relevant (Kvale

& Brinkmann, 2018, p. 289). In research conducted applying a phenomenological approach, generalization is not the goal. The intention of a phenomenological approach being, to the greatest extent possible, to focus on the uniqueness of the experience described by the participants (Yin, 2016). Arguments, resisting the aim of all research to have a generalizable component, refer to qualitative research able to provide valuable knowledge about a concept, both social and historically, without being generalizable (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 289).

In this study, the sample consisting of three teachers is considered too small to serve any form of generalizability. Still, an exploration of teachers' informal conversations with other teachers regarding students in this study, could contribute to increased knowledge regarding this topic for the readers of this thesis, without generalizing the findings.

3.6 Possible Limitations

In this part, I will address some possible limitations of my study. First, I have limited experience as a researcher, therefore, there could be biases and weaknesses in this study

Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms