Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms

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Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American

Classrooms

In the Face of Adversity and the Importance of Resilience

Heidi Ophus Østvang

Masteroppgave i spesialpedagogikk Institutt for spesialpedagogikk Det utdanningsvitenskapelige fakultet

UNIVERSITETET I OSLO

Vår 2020

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Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms – In the Face of Adversity and the Importance of Resilience

Heidi Ophus Østvang http://www.duo.uio.no/

Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo

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Summary

Background

The study in this master thesis is written as a part of a larger research project: “Teachers’

Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms”, led by Professor Liv Duesund. The research groups focus on disruptive behavior in Norwegian and American classrooms and how the teachers approach and cope with disruptive behavior that occurs in the classroom context. The purpose of this thesis was to examine teachers’

experiences in stress management and in which way they could see the importance of emotional resilience when coping with stressful situations in the classroom environment.

Resilience refers to a pattern of positive adaption in the context of past or present adversity (Wright & Masten, 2006, p. 18). Emotional resilience refers to one’s ability to handle stressful situations of adversities within everyday life more sufficient and calmly, and it can be seen as stress management within the concept of resilience (Scott, 2019).

Research question

The aim of this study was to explore the experiences of teachers and how they cope with stressful situations, and the following research questions were developed:

In which ways do the teachers see the importance of being resilient when it comes to coping with disruptive behavior in the classroom?

What are the experiences regarding teachers´ own stress management when coping with disruptive behavior during classroom teaching?

Methodology

Since the study in this thesis is a part of the larger research project, I was required to apply a qualitative research methodology with interview as a research method. I conducted

interviews with 3 teachers in two different American middle schools, where the interviews lasted for 20-35 minutes. I was provided with an interview guide from the larger project with the opportunity of adding a few questions of my own.

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Results

The findings of this study suggest that emotional resilience may be important for the teachers to become better at coping with stressful situations. In the face of adversity, it can be

indicated that the teachers in the study may see the importance of resilience in different ways through having various protective factors they consider important. These factors may give better possibilities to skillfully cope with stressful situations and disruptive behavior in the classroom context, along with the complexity that comes with teaching. The importance of resilience among teachers may also be applicable to explore the different protective and risk factors teachers are dealing with in their work situation.

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Acknowledgement

There are various people I wish to thank and who deserve acknowledgement for their contribution to my study and for helping me through this thesis.

First and foremost, I wish to thank my supervisor, Professor Liv Duesund for the incredible and unique possibility to study a semester at The University of California, Berkeley. I also want to thank her for allowing me to be a part of the research project “Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms.” Being a part of these experiences has been both amazing and tough, and it has allowed me to grow both academically and personally. Thank you so much for the continues support, interesting conversations and the enlightening and inspiring discussions during this time. It has been a privilege working with you.

Secondly, I would like to express my very great appreciation to Professor Elliot Turiel and Professor Joanna Reed at The University of California, Berkeley, for their guidance and useful critiques of my thesis and research work. Thank you for the illuminating conversations during this semester, and for inspiring me to become a better writer.

My grateful thanks are also extended to all the informants in this study for wanting to participate. I very much appreciate the stories they wanted to share with me.

Finally, I wish to thank my parents, my sisters and my partner for their endless love and support throughout my study. Their encouragement means everything to me, and it is something I appreciate tremendously.

Heidi Ophus Østvang Oslo, June 2020

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1 Introduction

In this section I will present the background, theme and the research questions of the thesis.

Then I will present an outline for the next chapters in the thesis.

1.1 Background

The background for my subject is based on my interest in the concept of resilience. Resilience in the psychological term is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress. The term involves behaviors, thoughts and actions and are skills that can be learned and developed in children, adolescence and adults (Marano, 2003). During my bachelor thesis I wrote about resilience and how it can be used as an intervention among children at risk due to family- and serious health problems. Resilience and how it can be developed and how it appears in individuals have since then become an academic interest to me.

Since I have the privilege to be a part of the research project “Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American classrooms”, led by professor Liv Duesund, I see the opportunity to write about teachers experiences on disruptive behavior and how they face and cope with adversities in the classroom. The project aims to explore how teachers experiences their own skills when coping with disruptive behavior. On this account I want to focus on emotional resilience within teachers, as a trait in the resilience concept, which refers to one’s ability to adapt to stressful situations of crises (Scott, 2019). With a higher degree of emotional resilience one can handle the stresses within everyday life more profoundly and calmly, and also be able to manage crisis more sufficiently and easily (Scott, 2019). As a teacher you are exposed to different factors of stress related work. A lot is expected of teachers, they need to develop their skill of teaching and to meet the needs of every student.

Children especially, need someone believing in them. How do the teachers experience disruptive behavior in their classrooms, and how do they cope with this? What kinds of personal strategies are they applying when it comes to coping with stressful situations in their classroom? What do teachers think of their own skills and how do they experience their own feelings when facing adversity? I wonder if the teachers see the importance of resilience in themselves, not just on a personal level, but as a part of being a teacher.

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1.2 Theme

The subject matter of my thesis will be disruptive behavior in adolescents related to resilience skills among teachers as the main topic. Disruptive behavior in adolescents will be

investigated from a teacher´s perspective. It is of interest to study how teachers approach disruptive behavior in their classroom, and if the teachers apply some specific strategies to cope with this behavior. Are the teachers seeing themselves as resilient when facing adversity in the classroom? Individuals handle adversity in many different ways. The different

approaches and strategies they make use of have been learned and shaped through culture, society and the family system that they grew up in and of which they are a part of (Breazeale, 2012). Professor Christopher Day (2012) writes that levels of work-related stress, anxiety and depression are higher within education than within many other occupational groups. Less resilient people are more likely to have a harder time with stress and life changes than people with a higher degree of resilience. However, emotional resilience is a trait you are, to a degree, born with, but it can also be developed later in life, and it’s about how well a person can handle stress (Scott, 2019). This is among the reasons to why I think of emotional resilience as important within the teachers.

A number of studies suggest that qualities in resilience can be learned or achieved through providing strong and relevant protective factors, such as caring and attentive educational settings (Day, 2012), where the leaders should promote positive learning environments, strong and supportive peer relations and social community (Goldstein & Brooks, 2006, p. 4). In a survey (Day, 2012) among teachers in schools in England, the teachers reported damaging impact on their work performance. The issues were excessive workload, student disruptive behavior, unreasonable demands from the school management, bullying by colleagues and problems with parents. They concluded that to teach at one’s best over time it takes a

“everyday resilience”, with the ability to bounce back in adverse circumstances. (Day, 2012).

It is being able to cope with stress, have the capacity and capability to be sufficiently resilient, to have the desire, energy and the passion to give their best to the learning and growth for their students (Breazeale, 2012; Day, 2012).

Teachers need a wide set of skills when they are interacting in a classroom. They need to manage disruptive behavior, create a positive classroom environment as well as having focus on the educational content provided (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a; Duesund & Ødegård,

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2018b). The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) research from 2018 (OECD, 2019) collected data on students´ attitude and well-being and they documented that students scored higher academics when they experienced their teachers being more

enthusiastic, and especially when they reported that their teachers showed interest in the subject and in their students (OECD, 2019, pp. 47-48). The role of the teacher is emphasized to be important when it comes to student’s achievement and behavior in the classroom.

Earlier research on disruptive behavior in classrooms report findings from a comparative study between schools in the United States and Norway and are based on reactions to inappropriate behaviors in classrooms (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a). 609 students in the US participated in the study. The majority of these students believes to have been disturbed one or more times every day during the last week. Ødegård (2017) indicates in his doctoral dissertation that the teachers are facing major challenges with disruptive behavior in the classrooms. He also explains the disruptive behavior as an everyday phenomenon in schools (Ødegård, 2017). This also emphasize the challenging perspectives in teaching. Some teachers might be insufficiently prepared to deal with difficult students and classroom environment.

1.3 Research Questions

Based on my interest in resilience skills; emotional resilience and stress management, when coping with stressful situation in the school environment, the following research question was created:

In which ways do the teachers see the importance of being resilient when it comes to coping with disruptive behavior in the classroom?

The intention of this research question is to explore the teacher’s experiences on resilience skills when facing adversity, like disruptive behavior in the classroom. The study will also include in which ways the concept of emotional resilience can be applied when examining to analyzing how teachers reflects over their own skills and stress emotions when it comes to coping with challenging situations. In addition to the main research question a sub research question was created:

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What are the experiences regarding teachers´ own stress management when coping with disruptive behavior during classroom teaching?

The sub research question aims to explore the teacher’s thoughts in how they may experience stress and stress management when it comes to coping with disruptive behavior. When asking these research questions, I hope to gain the teachers stories of experiences in stressful

situations. Individuals handle adversity and stress in many different ways. It is of interest to examine how teachers may react and think when they are faced with adversity. Are the teachers seeing themselves as skilled in the teaching role when it comes to stressful situations in the classroom? I am curious to examine if they also are practicing resilience skills as a teacher.

1.4 Disposition

I will now outline an introduction about the teachers’ role and complexity in some of the elements the teacher has to manage in the classroom context. Next, I will present an

introduction in the theory of resilience as an overall concept, and then emotional resilience as a part of the resilience concept. As a part of this chapter a brief introduction in teachers and emotional resilience will be presented. After presenting the theory and the background of what the study is based on, a description in the methodology and processes of the study will follow. This will be presented by a short description of the qualitative and interviewing in research methodology. I will outline the study design by present recruitment and sampling and analysis, followed by the steps made to enhance reliability and validity. Then I will present the findings and analysis. Findings will be discussed in light with the theory of resilience and teachers’ role to explore in which ways the resilience concept can be applied when analyzing teachers’ experiences on emotional resilience and stress management in stressful situations. In the end, I will present some possible implications and some critical insight of my study, and then provide a conclusion of my study with closing comments and thoughts on further exploration.

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2 The teachers’ role

Teachers are found to be one of the most influential factors regarding student´s academic, social and emotional learning and development, and are therefore seen as an important aspect within the school environment (Moen, 2012, pp. 125-126). There are many factors within the teacher’s role, and how these factors interact and influence one another impacts how well or poorly something can be learned (Pitkäniemi, 2020, pp. 30-33). Included in the factors of the teacher’s role is the academic support, feedback and enthusiasm and socio-emotional skills, which is also seen as a social interactive process over time (Pitkäniemi, 2020, p. 33).

Teaching skills may influence the teacher’s enthusiasm, the teachers support and the teacher’s behavior and student learning (OECD, 2019). Teachers are expected to be supportive,

enthusiastic and responsive and able to see every student and their needs (OECD, 2019), and they have the main responsibility of making sure that the classroom environment is conducted to learning. Teachers are therefore in a unique position to affect social adjustment and

interpersonal competence in children (Shure & Aberson, 2006, p. 373-74).

2.1 Teaching as a part of a social system

“We are always participating in something larger than ourselves, and if we want to

understand social life and what happens to the people in it, we have to understand what it is that we´re participating in and how we participate in it.” (Johnson, 1997, p. 13).

What we are participating in is called social systems, and they exist in all shapes and sizes.

Social systems and people are connected through a dynamic relationship. People make

systems happen and teaching in a classroom is a social system that is determined to lay a path of least resistance to shape how teachers and students participate (Johnson, 1997, p. 20).

Johnson (1997) writes that in social life it depends on how people are connected to one another by having social relationships, and that systems do not change unless there are changes in relationships. In the classroom there needs to be a class management that always will be context dependent (Moen, 2012, pp. 125). The teacher needs to practice good class management with the student and in that way make changes if it is necessary. How society understand the process of learning influence teachers and how they teach, and that influence how the students learn. Teachers should also be able to create an active, social learning environment and have good relations to their students (Moen, 2012, pp. 126-127). All

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students have the right of an inclusive school environment, and the schools should at all time practice an inclusive social environment and inclusive learning environment

(Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2006, pp- 32-34).

2.2 School environment and past research

School climate, school environment and learning environment are all part of the social system of teaching. School environment can be referred to every aspects of the school experience (OECD, 2019; Wang & Degol, 2016), and includes indicators of safety, teaching and learning, school community and institutional environment (Wang & Degol, 2016). In the newest report from PISA 2018 (OECD, 2019), it is documented that the school environment is associated with the students’ sense of well-being. The students that claimed to a positive well-being were also associated with a higher proportion of resilient students (OECD, 2019).

In a positive school environment, a student should feel safe both physically and emotionally.

Schools are an arena for academic learning, but also one of the main arenas where students interact with peers and adults. In a classroom environment it also includes issues that could promote or prevent academic, social and emotional learning (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b, p.

412).

PISA (OECD, 2019) measures fifteen-year-olds competence in reading, mathematics, science, student’s life and school environment and compares it with other countries and past results.

Results indicate the quality and equity in learning outcomes, and it also focuses on the physical and emotional health of students, along with the role of the teachers, the parents and the social life at school. (OECD, 2019). According to the PISA results from 2015 it turns out to be positive peer relationships and supportive teachers that contributes to improve student’s well-being. Yet, the results from the latest PISA research (OECD, 2019) document that the students do not show any improvement when it comes to well-being in the classroom, and in other contexts they are a part of. Just two in three students are reporting that they are feeling satisfied with their life, and with five percentages lower scores than the PISA 2015 (OECD, 2015; OECD, 2019). The PISA (2018) also report an average of 76% students who agree that their teacher shows enjoyment in teaching, and that this may have an impact on their own well-being in the classroom (OECD, 2019).

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2.3 Teachers and peers’ role

The role of peers can be complex, and for the student, influences may come from friends, role models or the composition of the peer group which may alter the classroom teaching

(Hanushek, Kain, Markman, Rivkin, 2003). Peers may affect the classroom environment, and Hanushek et. al. (2003) writes that peers are sources of motivation and direct interaction when it comes to learning in school. They can contribute to learning, to the pace of instructions or on the other side, peers can hinder learning through disruptive behavior (Hanushek, et al., 2003). Studies document that it is important for childrens’ mental health that they can manage and do well throughout school life, and that teachers express well-being as a teacher when they experience coping with students and such prevent disruptive behavior from developing (Moen, 2012, pp. 124-125). Teachers also need the time to share information about students’

strengths and weaknesses with their colleagues, so that, together, they can find the best approaches to make students feel part of the school community (OECD, 2019). In the school context, the teacher is the most important and central factor when it comes to students’

learning and development (Moen, 2012, pp. 125-26).

2.4 Teachers and students interacting

The way students and their teachers interact has an enormous influence on the student’s learning (Elias, Parker & Rosenblatt, 2006, pp. 323-24), and the relationship between students and teachers are highlighted to be of especial importance (Ogden, 2009; Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b). The teacher controls the teaching, but the student also has an important role in this process, for example, the student is set out to learn, criticize, accept or be skeptical, and the teacher need to have understanding of the mechanisms that can promote students’ engagement and motivation in learning (Pitkäniemi, 2020, pp. 20-21).

2.4.1 Disruptive behavior in the classroom

Disruptive behavior is one of the main concerns and one of the sources of stress for both students and teachers. It is argued to be one of the most challenging phenomena that teachers need to cope with (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a; Ødegård, 2017). Disruptive behavior in classrooms will in this thesis be defined as

“Any behavior that is perceived as sufficiently off-task in the classroom, as to distract teachers and/or class-peers from learning activities” (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a).

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Results from previous study on disruptive behavior between schools in Norway and the United States indicates that the majority of students in both countries had experienced and been disrupted by disruptive behavior and that this behavior occurred on a nearly daily basis (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a; Ødegård, 2017). This can be seen as an underline and an issue of disruptive behavior as a great challenge in schools, and one of the reasons there is a need for further research on how teachers can cope with disruptive behavior. PISA (2019) is measuring the disciplinary climate by the extent and the results suggest that students misses learning opportunities because of the disruptive behavior in the classroom (OECD, 2019).

Among students and teachers, disruptive behavior is linked to stress and frustration, along with influencing of the learning environment in the classroom. Teachers need to manage disruptive behavior, create a positive classroom environment as well as having focus on the educational content provided (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018a; Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b).

Difficult or antisocial behavior is said to be a key indicator of risk for many educators (Elias, et al., 2006, pp. 326). Although, work with children of abuse suggest that quiet, withdrawn children, who appears as no management problem to the teacher, can be just as much at risk as their noisier class peers (Howard, Dryden & Johnson, 1999, p. 308). Early categorizing of students has also turned out to have an effect of lowering teachers’ expectations when it comes to students’ potential to achieve, and it can place them in a position of being blamed for poor school performance because of the characteristics they do not have any control of (Howard, et. al, 1999, p. 309). Disruptive behavior stands in the way of establishing a

classroom environment that promotes learning and well-being. Studies can also document this by describing that disruptive behavior affects the classroom environment and the individual student and teacher (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b, pp. 418).

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3 Resilience

The study of resilience takes its roots back in about 60 years and have expanded significantly over the last 20 years. One of the reasons the field of resilience has accelerated is the

increasing of individuals in risk along with the number of adversities they face (Goldstein &

Brooks, 2006, p. 3). The concept of resilience has different definitions, although, the following definition will be further used: “resilience is a dynamic process in which the individual develops in a positive direction despite encountering risk” (Rutter, 2006, p. 2).

Moreover, it can refer to a relative resistance to environmental risk experiences or overcoming of stress or adversity. The definition operates with a relative resilience to psychosocial risk. One must be able to act in a “proper” way on the reactions to stress and adversity (Borge, 2010, pp. 9) The concept can also be seen as one’s resistance to developing mental health problems. However, this is based on the focus on the variables in risk and protective factors and their outcome, there is an assumption that the impact of these factors is, to a degree, similar in everyone. And that the outcomes will depend on the mix, quantity and balance between risk and protective factors (Rutter, 2006; Masten, 2001).

Resilience is not referred to a quality that is innate. Instead, it is a construct that is relative, developmental and dynamic. A range of researchers (Goldstein & Brooks, 2006; Wright &

Masten, 2006; Rutter, 2006; Werner & Smith, 1992) suggests that resilient qualities can be learned or acquired and can be achieved through providing relevant and practical protective factors. Assets and protective factors can be positive and strong individual characteristics, family characteristics and environmental characteristics (Wright & Masten, 2006, pp. 24-30).

These factors can also be referred to as internal factors, and can include cognitive, behavioral and emotional skills, such as cognitive ability, emotion regulation and effective coping efforts (Winslow, Sandler & Wolchik, 2006, pp. 338-39). Protective factors can in a school context be caring and attentive educational settings in which school and academy leaders promote positive and high expectations, positive learning environments, a strong supportive social community, and supportive peer relationships (Day, 2012). For those reasons resilience typically refers to a pattern of positive adaption in the context of past or present adversity (Wright & Masten, 2006, pp. 18), and the field of resilience therefore focuses on identifying those variables that predict resilience in the face of adversity (Goldstein & Brooks, 2006, pp.

11-12). Even with the protective factors for each individual in the school context there are also some risk factors to take in account. Risk can be defined as a circumstance or factor that

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gives a probability of an unnecessary outcome (Backe-Hansen, 2007, pp. 107). Risk factors can be adversities occurring in individual, family, or community-organizational domains (Winslow, et. al., 2006, pp. 338).

3.1 Emotional Resilience

Rutter (2006) implicates that, in some circumstances, the experience of stress or adversity can later in life strengthen resistance to stress. As well it is known that exposure to infections, natural exposed or through vaccination, leads to a relative immunity to later exposure on same infections (Rutter, 2006). Emotional resilience is suggested to be one of a number of

constructs that protect or reduce vulnerability (Goldstein & Brooks, 2006, p. 6), and will make one more equipped in the face of adversity. Emotional resilience refers to one’s ability to handle stressful situations. It can be seen as the stress management within the concept of resilience (Scott, 2019). In other words, it is when you are able to calm your hectic mind after encountering a negative experience. Less resilient people are more likely to have a harder time with stress and life changes than people with a higher degree of resilience. Emotional resilience is a trait you are, to a degree, born with, but it can also be developed with life effort, and it is about how well a person can handle stress (Scott, 2019). On that account Goldstein &

Brooks (2006) believes that emotional resilience is an important phenomenon to look closer at, and that with more research one can take the positive outcome and build interventions for others at high risk. This can help to create a resilient mindset in people. It is believed that every person who is capable of developing such a type of mindset is more able to handle stress, pressure and daily challenges and more easily recover from disappointment, adversity and trauma (Goldstein & Brooks, 2006, pp. 4-6).

Werner & Smith (1992) documented in their research of 600 people on an island in Hawaii that positive relationships rather than specific risk factors seems to have a more profound impact on which direction individuals take in their lives, and from their research they claim that is never too late to change this trajectory in life (Werner & Smith, 1992). It is of belief that individuals have a certain quality or personal strength that makes them able to withstand adversity. Emotional resilience is entwined with self-awareness, mindfulness, stress

management and enhanced cognition, and is the way to empower to perceive adversities and keep evolving through negative events that may occur (Chowdhury, 2020).

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3.1.1 Stress management

Stress is a physical, mental or emotional factor that causes tension bodily, mental or both.

Stresses can be both external or internal and can cause or influence the course of many conditions, such as burnout, depression and anxiety (Shiel Jr., 2016). Coping with stress in an effective way contributes directly towards building emotional resilience. Being emotional resilient revolves therefore around how well we are able to handle stress and get back on the track in a professional way (Chowdhury, 2020). Stress management can be referred to coping mechanisms, communication, professional guidance, emotional support and self-regulation (Chowdhury, 2020; Goleman, et al., 2017). Stress management is seen as a way to manage these factors in a way that is efficient and positive for the individual. Exposure to toxic stress can evoke intense emotions and our own coping mechanisms are immediately activated to manage the situation. Some people are however better at managing stress than others, and the reason why some are better is their resilience skills (Barry, 2018). Stress management and emotional resilience does not refer to that stress won’t affect us, or that other traumatic events will depress us, it implies that we still have the strength to stand up and keep moving forward.

Barry (2018) writes that resilient people are better and more efficient at activating these coping strategies and can therefore adapt to difficulties in a more comfortable way. However, Barry (2018) also mentions that although some people are born with resilience and are better at emotional balancing than others, it can still be developed in others. We are all capable of building ourselves as emotionally resilient human beings (Barry, 2018; Chowdhury, 2020).

3.1.2 Teachers and Emotional Resilience

“Teaching at its best is emotionally as well as intellectually demanding work...” (Day, 2012).

The term resilient has its origins in child development where it is seen as an ability to recover from adverse trauma (Ungar, 2006, pp. 424). However, the interest has grown in the ability of adults to be resilient in their career, in different context and stages. Within education, the ability to be resilient is seen as an important factor in teaching and teacher’s effectiveness over time, since resilient individuals can deal with stress more effectively (Breazeale, 2012;

Chowdhury, 2020; Masten, 2001). Schools more than any other institution, except from family, provide the environment and conditions that foster resiliency in today’s youth and tomorrow’s adults (Taub & Pearrow, 2006, p. 357). Findings also suggest that most

successful social workers, like teachers, are able to use variety coping mechanisms suited for

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stressful situations (Day, 2012; Day, Edwards, Griffiths & Gu, 2011). This is in line with their well-being and a confident to be selflessly, due to the fact that they are emotionally strong enough to look over the stress and be able to let it pass without having any negative outburst or emotionally nor personally breakdown (Elias, et. al., 2006; Day, 2012). However, research also document that a large portion of teachers who get terminated or voluntarily resign from their jobs do so because of personal stressors and mental illness (Day, et. al, 2011, pp. 6-7). In a survey (Day, 2012) among teachers in schools in England, the teachers reported damaging impact on their work performance. The issues were excessive workload, rapid pace of change, student disruptive behavior, unreasonable demands from management, bullying by colleagues and problems with parents. The research also documented problems caused by lack of

resilience, and many teachers reported suffering from illness caused or made worse by their job (Day, et al., 2011, pp. 5-6) In these studies one of the conclusions was therefore to teach at one’s best over time it takes a “everyday resilience” (Day, 2012). It is being able to cope with stress, have the capacity and capability to be sufficiently resilient, to have the desire, energy and the passion to give their best to the learning and growth for their students (Breazeale, 2012; Day, 2012).

Hence teachers need a wide set of skills when they are interacting in a classroom (Duesund &

Ødegård, 2018b, p. 416). Rather than focusing on managing stress, an even more productive approach would be to focus on fostering resilience in teachers (Day, et al., 2011, pp. 3).

Masten (2001) indicates that resilience is not only an independent individual trait, but a combination of factors supporting good development, with combinations of risk factors, or a dose of “toxic stress”. These factors can encourage or weaken functional normal

developmental processes that enable adaption to the environment (Masten, 2001, pp 228-29).

The social environment is therefore important as resilience can be fostered or diminished through the environment. For example, through leadership and in establishing and nurturing good structures and cultures (Day, et al., 2011, p. 5). Much of the illness the teachers are experiencing is psychological and emotional, such as stress, anxiety and depression. Without organizational support, bringing a passionate, competent and resilient individual to teaching well every day of every week of every school term can be stressful, not only to the body, but also to the heart and mind. Because the processes of teaching are rarely problem free and the results are not always predictable (Day, 2012). However, Day, et al. (2011) writes that teachers’ resilience can be nurtured through different career stages and through initial

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training, continuing professional development and through a supportive network (Day, et. al., 2011, pp. 6-8).

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4 Methodology

In this section I present the methodology of my study. I had the privilege to be a part of the larger research project “Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms” led by Professor Liv Duesund. This is a part of the study presented in my thesis. The project aims to compare how teachers in American and Norwegian classrooms cope with disruptive behavior, how they work with disruptive behavior and how it affects the teaching and what kind of skills teachers emphasize when working with students.

Qualitative research is the method of approaches and techniques that were used to collect and analyze the data (Maxwell, 2013, p. 4). Given the research questions in this thesis, a

qualitative research method, like interviews, is therefore the most fitting one in order to collect and to get the teachers perspectives. With this method it opens up for a deeper interaction with the informants and to the data (Kvale & Brinkman, 2018, pp. 21-22). The qualitative research design in this study was semi-structured interviews with teachers at American middle schools. My study is in line with the larger project noted above, which uses the method of semi-structured interviews. The participants of the study were teachers

recruited by personal network and some criteria were that they had to be employed as a teacher for at least two years at American Middle schools or High schools. My participants were all middle school teachers teaching 6th to 8th graders. I was provided with an interview guide from the research group for the project, where it was possible for me to add one or more questions of my own interest based on the research questions in my study.

4.1 Qualitative research

Some goals in research is to provide information and new insight into relevant perspectives.

The research fields are mostly divided into groups of qualitative and quantitative research.

However, it has become an increase in using both combined to provide more hold and strength into the research findings (Befring, 2015; Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Between the two approaches a distinction between a variance theory and process theory can be used as explanation. Quantitative researching can be compared to the variance theory where the world is seen in terms of variables, as explanation of statistical relationship between different

variables. Process theory is in line with qualitative research where it tends to see the world in

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terms of people, situations, events, and the processes that are connecting them (Maxwell, 2013, p. 29). An explanation of this theory is based on an analysis of how situations and events can have an influence on each other. A qualitative research design is in line with phenomenology which encompasses humans own experience of the world. It is the subject’s experience we want to examine (Lund, 2012; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018), and it is therefore the most fitting approach in this study. The strengths of qualitative research focus on specific situations or people and emphasize descriptions rather than numbers. Understanding the meaning for the participants in the study, of the events, situations and the particular contexts they are involved in are important within this research method (Maxwell, 2013, p. 130).

4.2 Interview as a research method

A qualitative research interview is based on an interview where the knowledge is created in the social interaction between people. It also opens up for a deeper exploration when it comes to differences in experience (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018). By using this method, it is possible to get the participants own reflections and opinions, which I consider convenient for my research questions. Qualitative research interview is built on constructions of knowledge in the interaction between the interviewer and the informant and is an exchange of views in topics that are relevant for the participants and the interviewer (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 20-22). Reflections over how to implement and analyze an interview is based on what the researcher is interested in exploring. Interviewing also depends on the interviewer’s practical skills and personal considerations. The quality of the interview is measured in the strength and value of the knowledge that is produced (Kvale og Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 35-37).

A semi-structured interview method was chosen as the research methodology since the research questions that guides the study is based on the exploration of the participants lived experiences (Kvale og Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 34-35). In addition, this was also a requirement from the research group I am collaborating with. I was provided by an interview guide since I am participating in a larger project. The interview guide was created to help with the structure to the conversation. The questions within the interview guide was predetermined by the research group and consists 14 questions, with the possibilities of adding some questions of my own (Appendix 3). The additional questions were made open and with reflections around the research questions to get the teachers’ thoughts and reflections. With my research

questions considering the teachers experiences on emotional resilience and disruptive

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behavior I added some questions in between category 2 and 3 within the interview guide (see appendix 3).

4.3 Recruitment and sampling

In research a sample can be a small part of a population, which refers to the individual participants selected into the study. A population can be seen as the larger set of subjects that we wish to examine (Kvale & Brinkman, 2018; Maxwell, 2013). A sample is therefore used since examine of the whole population is not achievable, so a selection from the larger population is preferable to have a smaller researchable sample of participants (Befring, 2015;

Maxwell, 2013). The sample for my study was recruited through a personal network and as a part of the larger project I am collaborating with. I was provided with 3 potential participants.

I contacted the participants, and then I got consent to meet them to have an interview. I have in my study conducted a sample of 3 teachers with different backgrounds and with different years of work experience. The participants are employed as teachers at two different middle schools in Berkeley, California. Teacher 1 is a math teacher for 8th grade and has 18 years of experience as a teacher. Teacher 2 is a Special Educator teacher for 6th to 8th grade with six years’ experience in teaching. Teacher 3 is a history and geography teacher for 8^th grade and has 16 years of experience as a teacher.

4.4 Preparing for interviews

Since I had my exchange at UC Berkeley, I had the opportunity to conduct my interviews in American Middle Schools. Before conducting the interviews, I performed a test interview in order to prepare for my interview questions and prepare me for a role as an interviewer. This was helpful and gave me the opportunity to test the formulations of my questions. It also made me aware of some concepts I needed to redefine and changes I could make for the interviews with the teachers. In a collaboration with the participants we conducted a time and place to meet for the interview. The time for the interview was conducted outside of my participants working hours. We found a place that was most convenient for the participants and in all three cases that was at their workplace. I used the first part of the interview to inform about the study, my master thesis and then I provided them with the necessary information about their rights and their opportunity to withdraw from the study and the interview at any time. I gave them time if they had some questions. Before starting with the

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interview guide, we talked about letter of consent before the participants signed it (Appendix 2). After signing I also made sure by asking if I could record the interview and use for transcribing. The interviews lasted between 20-35 minutes.

After each interview, I asked my participants if they had comments or anything to add or questions for me before I thanked them again for their helpfulness and participation. Right after finishing the interviews with the participants I wrote down reflections and thoughts about the interview, and thoughts of the participant, the atmosphere and any other external factors that could be of importance.

4.5 Transcription and analysis

Transcription implies to transform from the verbal words into written text, a procedure that is necessary to make the interview available for analysis. However, this is a process where forms of communication, like body language and gestures and other than the verbal word can be lost in transcription (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 204-05). It is therefore important that I am, as a researcher, objective and reflective about differences between the verbal and the written language and about my interpretations. After conducting my interviews, I used the audio file with the interviews on to transcribe them into written text. As a part of the

transcription I also supplement the interviews with own reflections and field notes made after the interviews, observations and any relevant emotion or facial expressions or other external factors that can create a more holistic view of the setting with the interviewer and the

participant. When the interviews are transcribed from verbal to written form it will make structures of the interviews, which makes them better suited to be analyzed. The structuring of the written text is the start of the analysis (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 206-07). When analyzing the data, I found it relevant to apply NVivo, which is a complex software for

qualitative researchers to use in coding a text, sounds, images and videos. The software can be used as a helping tool in transcribing and coding of the sampled data, organizing the data, and to systematic analysis. It is helpful in the processing of a rich dataset of unstructured

information, like semi-structured interviews (Nvivo, 2017).

4.5.1 Coding

After all the interviews were transcribed the next step was coding the collected data. Coding can be seen as a preparation to the interview analysis and implies associating one or more

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keywords with a text segment. Coding of transcribed interviews can be done in different ways (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p, 226). In this coding process I decided to use an open coding process. Open coding can be referred to as the process of breaking down, examining, comparing and categorizing data (Gibbs, 2007). Open coding is a part of the analysis, so in order to analyze how teachers experience their own stress management and reflections on their skills as a teacher, I had to break each interview down to smaller parts. The responses from the teachers were taken apart into smaller segments which I assigned codes out from the relevance in their response on certain questions in the interview guide. In qualitative analysis it is the relation to other codes and to the context in consequences of action. The goal is therefore to develop categories which fully captures the studied experiences (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 226-27). I started out the process with reading one interview at a time without making notes or codes. I did this to read the whole subject and get some idea of what it could be telling me. After reading the interviews I took one section at a time and connected segments of words with a code or a label. This was done to each interview transcript. Next step in this process was comparative analysis, where I compared similarities conceptual sections to find both similar and differences in the teachers’ reflections and experiences.

Coding requires notations and the researcher must write down a description of the different codes with thoughts around the codes meaning. Gibbs (2007) also write that everything can in principal be coded and exemplifies this with the importance of the situation, condition and emotions of the participants, relations, restrictions and specific reactions (Gibbs, 2007, pp. 47- 48). In addition to the coding in the transcriptions I wrote down the participants moods and emotions I experienced in the interview situation with the atmosphere in the room and any other external factors that could be of importance.

Coding often leads to categorizing and has the added benefit of being relatively easy to break down into smaller and different parts, and this is useful for a large set of data with transcript interviews. Categorization means that the meaning of a long interview statement is reduced to a few simple categories, it helps to reduce and structure the interview text down to a few tables and figures (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 227-29). A categorizing of the interviews in my study can therefore help to give an overview of large amounts of text and it can make it easier to compare the statements of the participants.

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4.6 Validity, reliability and generalizability

Some important aspects that all research have to address, and that the researcher has to consider, are the questions of validity, reliability and generalizability. These are concepts that are addressing solidness, legitimacy and the transferability for the research (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018; Maxwell, 2013). In this section I will address some of the parts that have strengthen the quality of my research study.

4.6.1 Validity

Validity can be referred to the accuracy and the solidity of the research (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018; Maxwell, 2013), and it is not a commodity that one can purchase with techniques (Bringberg & McGrath, 1985, p. 13; in Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018). Validity depends on a relationship of one’s conclusions to the reality, and no methods can fully assure that one has captured that reality (Maxwell, 2013, p. 121). The concept of validity has been somewhat controversial in qualitative research. Qualitative researchers have a different way to deal with validity threats than quantitative researchers. While quantitative researchers in general

attempt to design, in advance, controls that may include control group, randomized sampling, statistical control, tests of statistical significant and other tests, qualitative researcher do not have the same benefit of previously planned comparisons or statistical manipulation that can control for plausible threats, and must so try to address these threats after the research has started (Campbell, 1988; Maxwell, 2013, pp. 122-23). Validity in transcription is more intricate than reliability. If the verbal form and written form are distinctively different from their own sets of rules, there cannot be a true objective transcription (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 274).

In a qualitative research study, there will always be a risk of validity threats that could lead to invalid conclusions. Validity threats are made implausible by evidence and not methods.

Methods are just the way of getting evidence that can help rule out these threats (Maxwell, 2013, pp. 121-24). Maxwell (2013) refers to two common types of validity threats in relation to qualitative studies. The first can be addressed as researcher bias, which involves the subjectivity of the researcher (Maxwell, 2013, p. 124). Researcher bias can be referred to expectations, pre-understanding and prejudices or presuppositions the researcher has, and how my preconceptions about a subject may interfere with my interpretations (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018, p. 279). However, explaining the possible biases and how to deal with

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these is the solution of the research proposal. A researcher will always be affected by pre- existing conceptualizations, and therefore by being aware of how this might affect my judgement and my interpretation, it could help elevate the validity of the study (Maxwell, 2013; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018). This means applying a critical look at the process of the research design, and in conducting the study and analyzing the study. Trying to attend to possible biases one might promote validity in the study.

The second type of a validity threat Maxwell (2013) refers to can be addressed as reactivity, the effect of the researcher on the individuals studied. The goal in a qualitative study is not to eliminate an influence of the researcher, but to understand it and be able to use it

productively. In interviews the participant is always influenced by the interviewer and the interview situation. In this situation it is important for me as an interviewer to be aware of how I am influencing what the participants are saying, and how this may affect the validity of the interferences that I can draw from the interview (Maxwell, 2013, pp. 125). As a researcher and interviewer, I have tried to be aware of this, for example by avoiding leading question and by being neutral in the interview setting.

Additionally, Kvale & Brinkmann (2018) say that to validate is to question. If the validity in the study examines what it intended to examine, then we can ask what the participants are saying, why and if it is true? In the interview situation it may well be that the participants do not tell the truth (Kvale og Brinkmann, 2018, p. 281). Therefore, I have to reflect upon the possibility that my participants are not being truthful to me when I ask them about their thoughts and experiences. They may present answers that they think I want to hear instead of their own personal opinions and feelings. I have to be aware when I am analyzing the

responses of the possibility of my participants only telling me ideal answers and not the whole truth. The fundamental process in testing for validity is looking for evidence that can

challenge one’s conclusions of the plausibility of the potential threats (Maxwell, 2013, pp.

124-25). By addressing these thoughts and threats in validity through the research process it can help to ensure the validity of the study (Maxwell, 2013; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018).

4.6.2 Reliability

Reliability can be seen as the consistency and credibility of the research results. It can be related to how the participants in the interviews could change the answers with another

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researcher with the same interview guide, and if researchers could reproduce the findings (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 275-76). This also applies to the process of transcriptions and analysis, if another researcher could come to the same similarities in the transcriptions and analysis as I did. The reliability is related to the transcription and if what is written down is actually what the participants are saying. My subjective interpretation in the interviews and in transcribing the interviews may affect the reliability (Maxwell, 2013; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018). It is therefore important for me as a researcher to transcribe and write accurately in order to elevate the reliability of the transcription. This was attempted by having a high- quality recorder used to record the interviews, and by listening to the segment’s multiple times. However, whereas it is desirable to have a high reliability to the findings in the interviews to counter any arbitrary subjectivity, one may at the same time have too much focus on reliability that can counter for creative thinking and variation of the interviews by the interviewer (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, p. 276).

Qualitative studies are more difficult to reproduce. Therefore, the focus is more in strengthen system approach and if the study is documented precisely (Befring, 2015; Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018). Before I conducted my study, I created a project plan to help me maintain focus and made sure that every step of the way was thought trough before conducting the study. I also tried to strengthen the reliability in my study by considering how I could potentially influence my participants. I did this by thinking through how I worded the questions in the interview guide and follow-ups questions. I tried not to ask any leading questions that could influence the response of the participants.

4.6.3 Generalizability

The next question to address is generalizability. Generalizability refers to whether or not the findings can be transferable to other situations and subjects (Maxwell, 2013; Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2018). A common objection to interview research in qualitative method is that there are too few participants in order to generalize the results (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp.

289-90). Although, it is also argued for the necessity to generalize if the goal for the study is to conceive a deeper and better understanding for a phenomenon and not to get knowledge that needs to be universal. Qualitative researchers often study a single setting or a small number of individuals by using theoretical or purposeful rather than sampling of probability (Maxwell, 2013, pp. 136-37). In my study, I have not focused on uncovering a universal truth

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about how teachers experience stress management and challenging situations in the

classroom. It still can be useful to consider generalizability when planning for methods and to address any potential limitations to my conclusions.

4.7 Weaknesses and limitations

Here I wish to further address some potential weaknesses and limitations in my study. This study has a sample of only three teachers at American middle schools, so the results in my findings cannot be stated as generalizable to all teachers. Another limitation of this study that could interfere with the findings are my own influence as a researcher towards my

participants. How I respond to what the participants are saying might influence their answer, and so I tried to be as neutral and not too much responsive to what they were saying. Being aware of the biases and how they potentially could affect the research are important to help reduce them in the study if possible, because biases in a study can almost be impossible to avoid (Maxwell, 2013; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018).

Additionally, is my subjectivity, and the question is of that knowledge that are produced by interviews, can be objective. Objectivity can in a research study be referred to as reliable knowledge that is verified and controlled, unaffected by personal attitudes and prejudices (Kvale og Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 273-74). A weakness to the study can therefore be the part of being objective to the participants. Being objective in an interview situation can be difficult since as an interviewer I am easily biased by the situation with the participant. My

subjectivity and prejudices could influence how I interpret responses of my participants. The same encounter for the transcriptions of the interviews. In that way one cannot say that any of the transcriptions of the interviews are objective unless they are tested and controlled without the researcher’s personal opinions and prejudices. However, I tried to ask myself if my interpretations are based on what they really say or how I interpret what they are saying.

A common problem in developing research questions is confusion between the research questions and the actual goal of the study, what you want to understand in the study and practical goals of what you want to accomplish (Maxwell, 2013, pp. 76-77). As a part of my questions to the participants I aimed to explore reflections over teacher’s resilience without mentioning the concept of resilience. Instead I used the term of stress management as part of emotional resilience. This approach can be seen as both a weakness and a limitation since it

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does not underlie the participants to talk about resilience as much as if I consciously used the term. I deliberately chose not to mention the concept of resilience, of interest to see if the teachers themselves used the term or could describe what may resemble emotional resilience.

By doing so it also opens up opportunities for misunderstandings and misinterpretations in the findings.

4.8 Ethical considerations

Interview as a research method is steeped with ethical issues. Before I could conduct my research study, I needed to familiarize myself with the ethical guidelines and considerations.

These ethical principles are about informed consent, voluntary participation and

confidentiality for the interview subjects. The informants had the opportunity to withdraw from the project at any time (Maxwell, 2013, p. 7; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018, pp. 102-06, pp.

213-14). Since I conducted my research in the US, I needed approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at UC Berkeley. My study followed the guidelines for empirical research and posed no greater than minimal risk to my participants according to Committee for

Protection of Human Subjects (2020). CPHS (2020) provided the larger project I am a part of with a letter of approval, which is also a letter of approval of my research study (Appendix 1).

Before I conducted the interviews, I informed the participants of the opportunity to withdraw from the project, even after the interview, confidentiality agreements, including anonymity of their identity, as well as the students, and other sensitive information. All the participants in the study are also voluntary and are given information about the topic and their rights. The participants were provided with a letter of consent (Appendix 2) that gave them more

information about the intentions of the project, handling of the data and whom that will have access to the data. In addition, they were informed about whom to contact if they wish to withdraw from the study or if they had any questions about the study. To make sure of the confidentiality of the participants they were given individual numbers (Teacher 1-3) in all written forms of text. The transcriptions and audio files were kept separately from the consent forms. At the end of the project the audio files will be destroyed. There is with regard to a minimal risk of a negative outcome for the participants in the study since questions in the interview revolve around their personal experiences and reflections they may have about teaching and their own skills in teaching.

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Human respect is also part of ethical consideration, both with the respect for human participants and with respect to the professional conduct and judgement in the research.

According to American Educational Research Association (AERA, 2009, p. 486) humanities- oriented research in education is at the assumptions that no research, or no researcher, is completely neutral when it comes to values. The possible biases in the research project should therefore be described if there are any potential conflicts of interest that can influence my analysis and thesis. Such as difference perspectives and cultural differences between the interviewer and the participant. In depth interview the interviewer is out to explore the answers the participants are contributing with. This is considered a work that needs to intend social distance and without making the participant feel violated (Sennett, 2004, pp. 37-38).

The excitement between getting the knowledge you want, and the ethical consideration is important to have in mind. The interviewer needs to establish a good relation between the participant and the interviewer. By doing that it takes a good balance between the interesting topics that the interviewer wants to gain more knowledge about and the respect for the participants integrity ethically (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018; Sennett, 2004).

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5 Analysis

In the next section I present and discuss the findings of this study. I will do so by presenting some core elements on the concept of resilience and teachers’ stress management, and I will use the data collected from the interviews to discuss my findings to answer my research questions: In which ways do the teachers see the importance of being resilient when it comes to coping with disruptive behavior in the classroom? And; What are the experiences regarding teachers´ own stress management when coping with disruptive behavior during classroom teaching?

The study was collected through interviews with three teachers from two different Middle Schools in the US. The teachers have a variation in the years of experience, from 6 to 18 years working and teaching in schools. The teachers will be referred to by a number, 1-3, to protect the anonymity of the participants, and as from now they will be referred to as T1 for Teacher 1, T2 for Teacher 2 and T3 for Teacher 3. The findings and discussions will elucidate some responses from the interview guide in line with present theory and early research; however, it will especially emphasize the findings on teachers’ experiences with stress management when coping with disruptive behavior, and in addition; if they see the importance of being resilient in challenging situations in the classroom.

5.1 Stress management and emotional involvement

Duesund & Ødegård (2018b) writes that to improve a skill, teachers might need to take responsibility and become emotionally involved in their actions in the situations, regardless from the potential outcomes. Following rules and protocol are not always adequate in managing stressful situations involving students. Teachers who do not take responsibility of their actions may be prevented from becoming more skilled as a teacher and emotional involvement is necessary for that to happen (Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b, p. 413). It has been documented that student involvement can play a part in decreasing the frequency of disruptive behavior when issues in the classroom appears (Green, 2014, in Duesund & Ødegård, 2018b, pp. 418-19). The student relation to the teacher becomes essential, where the teacher has the role of teaching, the student should also be involved and be able to develop capacity for critical thoughts. Studies have identified associations between school achievement and positive and emotional skills. For example, research have linked social and emotional skills

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with higher achievement on school tests (Elias, Parker & Rosenblatt, 2006, pp. 322). On the other side, antisocial conduct often occurs in hand with poor academic performance (Elias, et.

al., 2006, pp. 328). Teachers should therefore improve and learn emotional skills and be emotional involved with their students, which can better allow them to manage challenging situations, such as strong emotions and disruptive behavior. This may also help the students devote their energy they would have spent on managing stress towards the academic outcome in the classroom. Especially stress management can be seen as an important skill to improve when it comes to challenging situations and behavior in the classroom. T1 in the study illustrates how being mindful can be helpful for her in stressful situations and towards creating a positive learning environment in the classroom.

T1: Being mindful, calm and clear, uhm, also I have to always realize that I have 32 children in the room and they are there to learn and to- so I can't let disruptive behaviors take away from other kids learning, so uhm, I- being calm and clear to make sure that everyone can still be in an environment which can do so to learning at its highest... And then selfcare is really important... Exercising outside of school, finding hobbies that make you happy so that… you know. And then also I'm a big fan of creating a mindful space for the kids, so my classroom is always clean and organized.

A possible interpretation of this could be that T1 might be able to flexibly manage students and stressful situations by having learned strategies and experiences dealing with students with different backgrounds and needs. By using different techniques for preventing stress it can be helpful to keep a clear head and to stay calm in front of the students. Mindfulness can work as a stress management technique and can therefore be seen as a stress reliefer and may help the teacher to maintain a positive learning environment in the classroom (Day, 2012;

Goleman, et. al., 2017). The concept of the teacher’s skills as interpretations can be understood to give rise to a multitude of strategies for achieving a certain learning goal (Pitkäniemi, 2020, p. 25). Further, T3 in the study exemplifies the importance of being involved and engaged as a teacher to make the students engage in the class.

T3: I think- I think that if teachers don't have a strong relationship with their students I think it can be enormously problematic to call kids out... and shame them in front of their peers, uhm, I think that certain teachers because of their relationship with students have more

Teachers’ Skillful Coping with Disruptive Behavior in Norwegian and American Classrooms