Challenges and Possibilities of Drip and Canal Irrigation in Northern Sudan Osman Ali Osman ELmakki

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NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCESDEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, NORAGRICMASTER THESIS 30 CREDITS 2006

Challenges and Possibilities of Drip and Canal Irrigation in Northern Sudan

Osman Ali Osman ELmakki

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CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN SUDAN

BY

OSMAN ALI OSMAN ELMAKKI

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AT THE NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES.

May, 2006

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The Department of the international Environment and Development studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Eight Department, associated research institute and Norwegian college of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments.

The Noragric Master Theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agricultural “(MNRSA) “Development Studies” and other Master programmes.

The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the view of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may not be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the resource is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric

©Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, May 2006 [email protected]

Noragric

Department of International Environment and development Studies P.O. Box 5003

N-1432 Ås Norway

Tel: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01

Internet http://www.umb.no/noragric

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DECLARATION

I, Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, do hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has never been submitted for a degree at any other university. All the sources of the information have been duly acknowledged.

Signature………

Place………..

Date………

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DEDICATION

To my great father Ali and wonderful mother Darelsalam To my beloved wife Nada

To my sons Ahmed and Awab To my daughter Aya

To my brothers & sister I dedicate this thesis……

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I would like to record my appreciation and thanks to my supervisor Dr. Jens B.

Aune for his continuous follow up, guidance, support and valuable critique, that makes my on the right track. I am also grateful to my local supervisor Dr. Ahmed Ali Salah for his time and guidance in the field work. My deep thanks to Ingeborg and Lief, the wonderful librarians, for their great search for references and books for my thesis.

I would like to thank NORAD for granting the scholarship and make my dream come true.

I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Kjersti Larsen at Oslo University and Grete Benjaminsen at Dry Land Coordination Group (DCG) for their guidance and support from the very beginning.

I would like also to acknowledge my friends Hassan Guyo Roba, Ahmed Hussein, Bilijana Kostovska, Geoffrey Gilpin, for their comments and assistances.

My heartily gratitude goes to Fadul Bashir, the director of Umjawasir project, ADRA/SUDAN, for his logistic and moral supports. Deep thanks to Alex Murray the field coordinator for his supervision of the drip trial during my stay in Uganda and also for his technical supports.

My incommensurately appreciation goes to Umjawasir project staff, Hyder Ashri, Ramson Duku, Kabashi Mahmoud, Sadiq Sharif, Adam Yahiya, Musa Mohammed, Musa Abdallah, Hyder Hussen, Jouis Ayoub, Eptihag Fathelaleem, Sara Kamal, Sulafa Mohammed, Majda Sirelkhatim, Hawa Fadlalah, Hassan Fadilelnabi and Ismayel Elbalol for their cooperation and assistance. My deeps thank goes to the Hawaweer community at Umjawasir for their cooperation and participation. My heartily gratitude goes to my Parents, my wife and my kids for their support, encouragement, and patient during my stay in Norway and in the field work.

Osman Ali Osman ELmakki UMB, Ås, Norway

May, 2006

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Abstract

Canal irrigation is the corner stone for agricultural activities in Northern Sudan. Irrigation has traditionally depended on the Nile water or, in areas where there is no access to Nile water, cultivations depended on underground water.

Several mechanical and biological problems are encountered in canal irrigation. These problems make canal irrigation costly. Drip irrigation is considered as a possible solution to the challenges facing canal irrigation.

This study aims to identify the challenges facing canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan and to assess these possibilities for sustainable irrigation, with respect to the future benefits when growing date palms.

Data was gathered from both canal and drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan. A drip irrigation trial was completed at the Umjawasir project. Prices of vegetables were gathered over a six month period from the Khartoum market. Agricultural inputs and dripping kit prices were gathered from markets. Data concerning date palms was collected in relation to canal and drip irrigation.

The investment cost for 1ha of date palm in drip irrigation was US$12,068, while US$2,338 for the canal irrigation. The NPV for drip irrigation for 1ha of date palm, was US$-7,140, while US$4,168 for the canal irrigation with 10 % discount rate. The IRR for drip irrigation was 6 % and for canal irrigation was 16 %. The profitability of date palm in drip irrigation could not compete with date palm cultivation utilizing canal irrigation. For drip irrigation to compete financially with canal irrigation, the investment cost should not exceed US$4,214

Several crops can be intercropped with date palm utilizing canal irrigation such as alfalfa, okra and tomato. Intercropping date palm with other crops is difficult in drip irrigation. Drip can be the only way to irrigate land that is not possible to irrigate with canal irrigation.

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: APPROXIMATE LENGTH / M FOR CEMENTED AND TRADITIONAL CANAL... 14

TABLE 2:METHODOLOGY FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS... 20

TABLE 3: CROP PROFITABILITY FOR YEAR 2004 AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT... 22

TABLE 4: NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS OBSERVING DIFFERENT PROBLEMS IN CANAL PERFORMANCE22 TABLE 5:FARMERS HIRE LABOUR AND SELF DEPENDANT IN RELATION TO CANAL PERFORMANCE25 TABLE 6: COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENTED CANALS AND TRADITIONAL CANALS... 26

TABLE 7: INTERCROPPING CONTRIBUTION TO DATE PALM... 27

TABLE 8: AVERAGE PRODUCTION COST FOR DIFFERENT CROPS... 28

TABLE 9: OVERVIEW OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN NORTH SUDAN... 29

TABLE 10:OPINION AMONG RESPONDENTS ON DRIP IRRIGATION... 30

TABLE 11:INITIAL COST FOR THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL FOR 250 M²EACH... 33

TABLE 12: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR... 34

TABLE 13:INVESTMENT COST OF 1HA OF DATE PALM IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION... 37

TABLE 14:PRODUCTION OF DATE PALM IN CANAL IRRIGATION... 39

TABLE 15: DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION... 39

TABLE 16:SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION... 41

TABLE 17:SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN CANAL IRRIGATION... 42

TABLE 18:ECONOMICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION... 45

TABLE 19:COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP IRRIGATION AND CANAL IRRIGATION... 46

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1:UMJAWASIR PROJECT LOCATION... 12

FIGURE 2:UMJAWASIR PROJECT LAYOUT... 13

FIGURE 3:MAXIMUM &MINIMUM TEMPERATURE IN ⁰C ... 15

FIGURE 4:MAP OF SUDAN SHOWS LOCATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS... 17

FIGURE 5:TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION FIGURE (A) AND CEMENTED CANAL FIGURE (B)... 24

FIGURE 6:CANAL PROBLEMS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (C) AND (D)... 24

FIGURE 7: LABOUR TASK OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS... 32

FIGURE 8:THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (A) AND (B).. 35

FIGURE 9:OKRA GERMINATION IN THE 2^ND DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL... 36

FIGURE 10: DATE PALM FRUITS... 43 FIGURE 11:NET INCOME FOR 1HA OF DATE FRUITS IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN 30 YEAR44

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADRA/SUDAN Adventist Development and Relief Agency/ Sudan Acre Area Unit, of 4,840 square yards

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistic database.

Feddan Area unit of 4,200 square meter.

ha Hectare; area unit of 10,000 square meter.

IRR Internal Rate of Return

NORAD Norwegian Agency for development Cooperation

NGOs Non Governmental Organizations

NPV Net Present Value

N. State. Northern State.

SDR Social discount rate

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

yr Year

0C Degrees Celsius

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND

Irrigation plays a significant role in the agricultural production in Sudan. The total area irrigated by canal in Sudan is two million ha out of seven million ha (Abdel Rahman 1990). The performance of canal irrigation in Sudan was not satisfactory, due to the deterioration in the canal infrastructures, which leads to decline in the total production (Guvele et al. 2001). Drip irrigation was introduced to Sudan 5-6 years ago, in small areas, to solve problems related to canal irrigation.

The efforts to initiate the dripping projects were being individuals. In Northern Sudan at Umjawasir project, which is an agricultural project run by ADRA/SUDAN¹, where certain problems have been encountered with the canal irrigation such as; cracks, weed problems and sand burying the canals.

Labour demand was high in canal maintenance, while in drip irrigation a skilled labourer was needed for the maintenance and operation.

Drip irrigation offers an extensive range of solutions to the problems that were encountered for canals irrigation. Private companies and NGOs started to introduce drip irrigation in Northern Sudan to protect big investments in the desert, such as oil pipelines, highway roads and agricultural scheme.

The initial cost for drip irrigation is higher than canal irrigation. This is due to the high cost of equipment and installation.

Date palm cultivation is the most profitable crop in North Sudan. Date palm is extensively grown near the Nile. Several crops are intercropped with date palms in canal irrigation. Alfalfa, okra and tomato increase the profitability of date palm cultivation when intercropped.

Date palm cultivation in North Sudan has been prolonged for more than 3,000 year with the utilization of canal irrigation. While the cultivation of date palm using drip irrigation was not known as it was initiated only 5-6 years ago. The future benefit of date palm cultivation using canal irrigation was positive, however, concerning drip irrigation, certain factors determine the future benefits e.g. the social discount rate, market prices for date fruits and equipments prices.

Research was proposed to; identify the challenges that are facing the canal and drip irrigation in North Sudan, and to identify the future possibilities concerning a sustainable irrigation use.

1 ADRA/SUDAN refers to Adventist Development & Relief Agency/ SUDAN. Is a humanitarian, International, development and non government organization.

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1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION

Canal irrigation in North Sudan has played an economical role in keeping the date palm cultivation and different crop production sustainable for such a long time. Several problems were encountered concerning the performance of canal irrigation. In the Umjawasir project, problems involving the canal started with the establishment of the irrigation system at the site. The canals at the Umjawasir project was not properly functioning due to the problems encountered such as cracks in the canal, excessive weed growth in the canal and sand filling the canal from sandstorm.

Private companies and NGOs established several projects which are irrigated by drip irrigation.

These companies and NGOs were satisfied with performance of the drip irrigation. The economical future benefit for the drip irrigation project was not considered when establishing these projects.

Drip irrigation provides a solution to most of the problems faced with canal irrigation. Advantages and disadvantages of drip and canal irrigation were studied which would facilitate a clear assessment of economical future benefits.

This research is aimed at clarifying challenges and possibilities of canal and drip irrigation in North Sudan. Date palms cultivation was chosen in this study for it is historical, social and economical value for the communities of Northern Sudan. The entire drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan have the same ecological features as at the Umjawasir project. The common problems involved with canal irrigation in Northern Sudan are presented at the Umjawasir project.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan.

2. To assess the profitability of canal and drip irrigation when growing date palm in Northern Sudan.

3. To assess the future benefit of date palm cultivation using canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION

According to the 1959 Nile agreement, Sudan’s share of water was set at 18.5 billion cubic meters per year (Jobin 1999). Sudan has therefore exhausted their share of the Nile water agreement, consequently through expanding in agriculture scheme, thus a new strategies concerning the irrigation policies is required.

Sudan has different water resources for irrigation. The White Nile, the Blue Nile and the river Nile are considered the back bone for irrigation in Sudan. (Abdel Rahman 1990).

In the areas where there is no access to River Nile or its tributaries, 75 % of the population depend on groundwater and rainwater for their domestic water use (Ayoub 1997). With the current consumption of water in Sudan, there are signs of a water shortage (Abdel Rahman 1990) and (Guvele et al. 2001).

In Sudan, underground water has come to attention due to low rainfalls in arid and semi arid areas coupled with difficult access to the Nile’s water in areas with high populations (Farah et al. 1997b).

The northern Part of the Sudan is an arid and semi arid area of low rain fall. However, where there is no access to river Nile water, the main water sources is from the Nubian sandstone aquifer (underground water), which is capable of providing about 1.26 X 10¹³m³y^-1 (Farah et al 1997a).

The hydrological system in northern Sudan consists of two aquifers; the upper and the lower aquifer. The lower aquifer is more suitable for domestic and agricultural uses than the upper one (Farah et al. 1997a).

In northern Sudan, agricultural activities are concentrating along the Nile bank in a very small strip of land. The cultivation of date palms is the main sources of income, along with cereal crops (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.2 CANAL IRRIGATION

In many developed countries, irrigation plays a very important role in crop production.

Governments are spending millions of dollars each year in order to maintain and rehabilitate the canal systems to meet their agricultural production requirements (Ghezae 1998).

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Sudan has three agricultural sectors: irrigated, mechanized rain-fed and traditional rain- fed (Guvele et al. 2001). However, two million ha are irrigated by canal out of the total seven million ha which are traditional /mechanize rain-fed (Abdel Rahman 1990). Intensive canal irrigation is becoming a major cornerstone for agricultural activities (Jobin 1999). The government of the Sudan, through expansion in canal irrigation, leads to severe implication of water use. The performance of large scale projects in Sudan has been recognized as disappointing at the best (Guvele et al. 2001). The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Gezira board carried out research on water management practices on selected areas in the Gezira scheme. The performance of all lower level canals was poor due to the physical deterioration of the structure of the canals (Merry 1997). The high costs of canal irrigation and the low crop prices have made the investment in new irrigation schemes increasingly unappealing (Postel 1999). In addition, farmer’s irrigation performance has lead to a reduction in crop yield in certain parts of Sudan. A study was done at the Gezira research station and it was found that a reduction in sorghum yield was related to water mismanagement (Farah et al. 1997a).

“An important mistake in many early irrigation systems has been the attempt to justify investing in an expensive reservoir and irrigation site by proposing multiple crops and high intensities of irrigation” (Jobin 1999, p.14)

If such proposal was made in areas with poor drainage and where farmers have no experiences on intensive irrigation, the proposal would be rejected. Traditional irrigation systems are the opposite of the intensive irrigation, and have existed for generations (Jobin 1999).

2.3 DRIP IRRIGATION 2.3.1 Concepts

Drip irrigation is defined as a method of irrigation where the water is directed to the plants zone (Suryawanshi 1995). “Drip irrigation, refers to as “trickle” or “low-flow” irrigation to provide near optimal soil moisture as a continuous basis while conserving water” (Smith 1997) p 89. Drip irrigation is categorized as micro-irrigation (MI), where water is irrigated according to the plant water requirement (Phene 1995a; Suryawanshi 1995).

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There are two types of drip irrigation; surface and subsurface drip irrigation. The subsurface type uses a buried emitter which has the potential to save irrigation water by reducing the amount of water added to the plant (Evett et al. 1995).

Both surface and subsurface drip irrigation use the same mechanism for delivering water to each individual plant.

Drip irrigation is different than sprinkling irrigation. Sprinkling irrigation is the emission of water through the air with a predictable pattern and radius (Smith 1997). Sprinkling irrigation is widely used for the irrigation and freezing protection of young citrus trees in the USA (Davies 1995).

The main features of drip irrigation are; the deep percolation of water into the soil, negligible sign of water losses due to evaporation and no surface water run off (Postel et al 2001).

Drip irrigation has been used for the cultivation of valuable trees (Smith 1997). One of the overlying benefits of drip irrigation, is that can secure food, even during periods of drought (Chigerwe et al. 2004). The adoption of drip irrigation began in areas that have traditionally suffered from water shortages (Srivastava et al. 1998).

Due to the high investment cost, drip irrigation is most commonly used by wealthy farmers. (Postel 1999). In recent years, new drip irrigation technology has been developed, for home garden cultivation. A bucket, a few meters of tubes and nozzles, is all that is needed to grow vegetables for home consumption. The bucket can be filled manually, from a nearby water source (Sahin et al 2005).

The application of water, in drip irrigation, can be precisely controlled, when compared to furrow and sprinkling irrigation. These advantages can increase yield and revenue, and decrease overall cultivation costs when compared to the other irrigation methods (Hanson et al. 2006).

Drip irrigation is often chosen over other irrigation methods. The advantages of drip irrigation are water application efficiency and reducing the water losses. In addition, drip irrigation offer very low surface evaporation and deep percolation (Rajput et al 2006).

The unique feature of drip irrigation is the ability to apply small and frequent amount of fertilizer and the potential for applying it uniformly to minimize the loss of soluble nutrients (Phene 1995a)

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2.3.2 Global trend

The tendency in recent years has been to shift from surface irrigation to drip irrigation. World wide in year 2000, three million hectares were cultivated using micro irrigation. This represents 2 % of the total irrigated land in the world (Ayars et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is recognized to be a more efficient water delivery system, along with its ecological advantages (Sezen et al 2006). Drip irrigation has become more favourable due to it is advantages which appear in the production, fertilizer application, the control of water application, as well as the deep percolation (Postel et al.

2001; Ayars et al. 1999).

Countries which have adopted drip irrigation technology are either suffering of problems of water scarcity, or poor quality water (Srivastava et al 1998). China is an example of a country with water shortages. The government is encouraging farmers to adopt drip irrigation, (Wang et al. 2006).

Several studies have shown that, the area under drip irrigation is increasing. The spread of drip technologies are gaining momentum, e.g. India reported more than 70,000 ha under drip irrigation, which account for 3.97 % of the total area irrigated by drip irrigation systems world wide (Srivastava et al 1998).

.

One reason why people are moving towards drip irrigation is the increasing awareness that water resources are finite and perhaps are even declining (Phene 1995a). Drip irrigation can save up to 50-75 % of the irrigation water when compared to canal irrigation. Easily control of the water application in drip irrigation, along with reduced weeds growth, easy fertilizer application has led to increases the yield from 30-100 % (ELawadi 1999; Suryawanshi 1995)

For the areas with a narrow and irregular landscape, drip irrigation offers a wide range of solutions to maximize the land use without runoff. These being easy delivery of fertilizers and maximum control of the irrigation water (Bressan 1995).

2.3.3 Economical effects

“The investment decision for shifting to drip irrigation depends upon many factors; including cost of cultivation, productivity, yield gain factor, cost of producing electricity prices, depth of groundwater and irrigation requirement. These parameters vary from crop to crop, place to place, size of plot, and farmer to farmer”.(Sirvastava et al 2003, p.79)

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Drip irrigation is now available to all, but it is too expensive and sophisticated for small farmers to adopt (Postel et al 2001). In order for drip irrigation to become more profitable than other irrigation methods, the costs of watering along with agricultural input must be less than the total income (Hanson et al. 2006).

Ecological and geographical criteria determine the cost and benefits concerning the investment in a drip irrigation system (Sezen et al. 2005).

A model for investment decision for drip irrigation system was made by Indian scientists. The model is generated using computer software; all concerns the installation of a drip irrigation system, crop selection, as well as crop diversification. The model is suitable for both canal and drip irrigation with respect to those factors which determine decisions concerning which crops is grown. The model utilizes a wide range of mathematical and economical equations to enhance the decision concerning the possibilities of using drip irrigation (Sirvastava et al 2003).

A cost benefit analysis at the farm level was made, for converting olive grown using surface irrigation to drip irrigation. The net present value (NPV) was used in this analysis. The NPV was positive for drip irrigation, given the high prices paid for the olives at the market (Cetin et al.

2004).

An economic analysis was done to compare drip irrigation and a pivot sprinkling system in Western Kansas, USA, on a Corn field. The surface drip irrigated more area and generated a greater return than did the centre pivot sprinkler system, (Dhuyvette et al. 1995).

A field study was done in California, USA, to compare furrow, surface drip, and sub-surface drip irrigation on Lettuce yield. The drip irrigations profitability was uncertain and the revenue did not increase by converting from furrow to drip irrigation (Hanson et al. 1997).

2.3.4 Ecological impact

Management of agro-chemical for crop was one of the environmental issues identified during the design of the Rahad project in Sudan, which use a canal for irrigation, where intensive and extensive use of insecticides, herbicides, defoliants, fungicides and rodenticides. The use of these agro-chemicals had a negative effects on human and animals in the area (Ghezae 1998)

In Sudan malaria, diarrhoea, and schistomiasis are diseases associated with canal irrigation in the agricultural communities along the Blue Nile River, and this is due to water logging, (Ghezae 1998; Jobin 1999).

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By using drip irrigation, it reduces the negative impacts related to canal irrigation, such as water born diseases and excessive use of agro-chemical. Agricultural research showed that drip irrigation provided enough soil moisture and a significant affects on the yield, without using large amount of fertilizer and pesticides (Smith 1997; Sezen et al 2006).

Researchers summarize the advantages of the drip irrigation as; drip save water up to 50-75 %, yield increase up to 30-100 %, while fertilizers can be saved up to 25- 30 % and reduces the weed growth (Suryawanshi 1995; Zaid 1999). Drip irrigation is also reducing the incidence of crop diseases, by creating unsuitable habitat for insects to regenerate, through low humidity (Skaggs 2001).

2.3.5 Limitation of drip irrigation

In spite of the numerous advantages of drip irrigation, it has a number of limitations that varies from place to another.

Drip irrigation system is identified as high investment cost (US$1000 to US$ 3000 per acre). It requires a big investment capital and a high skilled labour (Barth 1995; Skaggs 2001).

Drip irrigation requires clean water neither mixed with sand nor hard particles, to avoid nozzles block, (Zaid 1999). Drip irrigation requires more maintenance and close monitoring during the operation, which increase the working load (Skaggs 2001). Canal irrigation reduces the temperature around growing plant, and thus reduces the water stress. In drip irrigation there is minimum control of the microclimate (Skaggs 2001).

Salinity is one problem need to be controlled in drip irrigation, where the salts accumulate during the irrigation. To control the salinity in drip irrigation, the bed surface should be raised above that normally used for planting. The drip system in then operated moving the salts into the raised portion of the bed. (Hanson 1995)

2.4 DATE PALM

Date palm phoenix dactylifera L. is a dioecious (unisexual) species with a male and a female flowers being produced in a clusters on a separate palms (Zaid et al. 1999). The world production of date fruits is about 4.8 million tons (Botes et al. 1999). The date fruits are produced largely in hot arid regions of South West Asia and North Africa. It is being marketed all over the world as a high value fruits and extremely important for most of the communities in the desert region. Most of

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the date palm productions are in the Middle East and North Africa (Botes et al. 1999). During 1996 Iraq and Iran had about 35 % of the harvested area in the world (Botes et al. 1999). History shows that date palm is a traditional crop in the old world. In recent year it has been introduced as a modern plantation in the USA and Israel. A decline in the date palm productivity of the traditional growing area over the last decade was due to political and socio-economic constrains (Botes et al.

1999).

North Sudan is considered one of the oldest places in the world for date palm cultivation. Date palm cultivation in Sudan started 3,000 years ago. It has social and economical benefits in that region of the North Sudan (Reyad et al. 1997). Cultivation of date palm in Sudan exists in three states; Northern state, River Nile state, and Northern Darfour state. These three states comprise about 81.4 % from the total date palm area in Sudan. The numbers of date palm trees in Sudan are about 8 million in 1996, which produces about 240 thousand tons of date fruits (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.4.1 Date palm irrigation

Different methods where used to irrigate date palms, at different water requirement even within the same country (Liebenberg et al. 1999). The oldest methods are flood irrigation, and furrow basin irrigation. Furrow basin is a redesign of flood irrigation (Liebenberg et al. 1999).

Flood irrigation method has several advantages. It has low operational cost and easy to apply. The disadvantages of the flood irrigation are high labour requirements, difficult to achieve a high efficiency rate and it is not suited for sandy soil (Liebenberg et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is the latest methods used for date palm irrigation. The control of water in drip irrigation is easy to schedule and manage. The topography is not a limitation for drip irrigation, as it is not influence by a wind or dust storm and its not labour intensive (Liebenberg et al. 1999). In summer season the water requirement through flood irrigation for date palm are almost double the amounts of water needed in winter season, which constitutes ¹/3 of the annual water consumption (Liebenberg et al.

1999).

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2.4.2 The economic of date palm production

In the Northern and river Nile state date palm is intercropped with wheat, broad beans and fodder.

It is difficult to calculate the cost of each crop in this intercropping system. In Sudan, statistical data showed that the cost of production of 1 ha of date palm range between US$114 in 1992 to US$ 130 in 1995 (Reyad et al. 1997).

A study of the date palm cultivation in the North Sudan found that; in 1995 the cost of production of 1 ha of date palm intercropped with different crop is higher in the Northern state than in the River Nile state. In the Northern state the cost was US$ 286, and US$ 232 in the River Nile state.

Therefore the agricultural input transportation cost to the Northern state is higher than the River Nile state (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.4.3 Dates marketing problem

The marketing problems of the date fruits in Sudan were summarised in four main points by (Reyad et al. 1997)

1- The date fruits are packed in traditional bags known as shawal which is susceptible to pests, and that lead to low price.

2- The storage of date fruits is in traditional rooms built by mud which is suitable for pests to regenerate.

3- Transportation means is not designed for date fruits or any other crop.

4- Dry varieties of date fruits is produced in Sudan, which has low prices in the international market.

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CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA

In order to carry out the study on drip and canal irrigation system, three states were selected;

Northern, River Nile, and Khartoum states. River Nile and Northern states were selected both for the location of the drip irrigation projects. Six drip irrigation projects were recognized for data gathering; two in the River Nile and four in the Northern state.

Khartoum was selected in order to gather information from market, government offices and research institutes.

The Umjawasir agricultural project was selected as the main study area for collecting the canal irrigation data, along with a drip irrigation trial.

3.2 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

The Umjawasir area is located approximately 200 km North West of Khartoum city in the Bayoda desert of Northern Sudan along the wadi ELmugaddam², (figure 1). The Hawaweer tribe are the inhabitants of Umjawasir, and have secured their livelihood mainly through pastoralism (Larsen et al. 2001). In the early 1980s, drought and famine hit the Umjawasir area as well as other places in the Sahel region. The Hawaweer lost most of their livestock and some of them migrated to other places in the northern state and the Khartoum state (Larsen et al. 2001). ADRA/SUDAN started the agricultural project in Umjawasir to ensure food security for the Hawaweer people and to rehabilitate the environment that had been affected by the drought.

2 Wadi ELmugaddam is a dry tributary of the river Nile stretching from Kordofan in Western Sudan and join the River Nile in Korti in Northern Sudan. (Larsen et al. 2001)

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Figure 1: Umjawasir project location Source: Google Earth.

The Umjawasir agricultural project started in 1991 with a pilot phase (phase zero) (figure 2). The main objective was to discover the possibilities of growing different crops. The project started with four bore holes using turbine pumps and a diesel engine to irrigate an area of 38 ha. In the first agricultural season on 1991 different crops were grown, and it was reported as a success.

The first phase (phase 1) started in 1995 with 6 bore holes to irrigate 130 ha. The direct beneficiaries were 72 families, each with 1.68 ha. The objective of phase 1 was to insure food security in the area and to rehabilitate the environment.

Phase 2 started in 2000 and 151 ha was brought under irrigation. Direct beneficiaries were 90 families who were involved in the agricultural activities. The land was irrigated from 6 bore holes.

All the three phases were funded by NORAD and implemented by ADRA/SUDAN.

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Figure 2: Umjawasir project layout

3.2.1 Soil

The soil in Umjawasir was deposited during the annual flood, which took place during various geological periods. The soils depth is 180 cm, with a clay content between 48 -50% and a yellowish – brown colour in the top 70 cm and a dark yellowish-brown profile on the bottom (Mustafa 2003)

Over all, the soils showed neither salinity nor alkalinity during the first growing season. Generally, the soil of the area is good for agricultural purposes, but due to aridity, the organic matter content is very low along with nitrogen deficiency (Mustafa 2003). The soil of some surface areas is salty;

however, this disappears by leaching to deeper zones in the first cultivation season. (Mustafa 2003)

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3.2.2 Irrigation

The main source of water for irrigation in Umjawasir project is the underground water from the Nubian sandstone aquifer. The project drilled four bore holes in phase zero (130-150 meters depth), six bore holes in phase one, and another six bore holes in phase two (149 – 180 meters depth).

Monitoring the underground water levels showed a negligible decline of a few meters during operations. (Mustafa 2003) All of the 16 bore holes from the three phases, irrigate 330 ha in Umjawasir. The irrigation area is distributed among 210 families.

Irrigation is done through canal net work stating from the bore hole to the farms site. Canal is divided into two types, main canal, which is cemented and sub main canal, which is erected by soil only. Table 1 summarize the total approximate length of each type of canal

Table 1: approximate length / m for cemented and traditional canal

Project # Cemented canal Traditional canal

Phase zero 00 01,360 m

Phase one 3,690 m 15,330 m

Phase two 4,200 m 18,900 m

Total 7,890 m 35,590 m

3.2.3 Climate

The temperature in Umjawasir varies between the average 27 ⁰C minimum to 45 ⁰C maximum (figure 3). Low humidity and high evaporation are the general climatic features in the area. The evaporation increases when the temperature increases.

The Annual rain fall is 50 mm/yr however; the area can flood in case of ample rain in the high land of northern Kordofan.

The summer season extends from April to July, and winter is from October to March. The period from August to September is considered the rainy season.

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0 10 20 30 40 50

Sep-95 Nov-95 Jan-96 Mar-96 May-96 Jul-96 Sep-96 Nov-96 Jan-97 Mar-97 May-97 Jul-97

Month

0 C Maximum °C

Minimum °C

Figure 3: Maximum & Minimum Temperature in ⁰C Source: Umjawasir project

3.2.4 Agricultural activities

Subsistence farming is the agricultural activity in the project area. Farmers grow different summer and winter crops. The main crops grown in winter are wheat and broad beans along with alfalfa. In the summer season sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown.

Wheat is considered the main crop, and almost all inhabitants depend on it as their main source of food. Broad beans in the recent years are grown for commercial purposes and some domestic consumption. Many farmers in the project grow alfalfa to generate high incomes. Date palms are also grown in the project area intercropped with alfalfa.

By growing date palms farmers secure a future for the succeeding generations, and can claim rights to the land.

Limited crops are grown in the summer season and most of the inhabitants tend to grow Okra for its high income.

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Sorghum grain and sorghum fodder are grown in small areas on the farm. The operational costs of growing sorghum are higher compared to wheat and broad beans. The reason for this is the intense demand on irrigation, which demands more fuel and spare parts.

3.3 DATA COLLECTION

Primary and secondary data were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. The qualitative method, consists of semi structured and unstructured interview with close and open ended question, as well as general observation for the study area and a focus group discussion with the informants

The quantitative methods consist of the drip irrigation trial at Umjawasir project and questionnaire survey.

A detailed description of how data was collected and analysed is presented in the following part.

3.3.1 Primary data

Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect primary data on both the irrigation systems and market prices of vegetables and agriculture inputs.

In order to identify the advantages and disadvantages along with the labour use and the future benefit of the canal irrigation, a qualitative method were used through semi structured and unstructured interview

The interviews conducted in Umjawasir project included 39 farmers (31 male and 8 female) out of 50 farmers who were cultivating during the survey time. The selection was done randomly from a list obtained from the project administration and a calculator was used to select randomly.

Focus group discussions were carried out with four groups, seven persons each. The groups were purposefully selected from Umjawasir project’s field office, to represent young, middle, old age farmers, and labourers.

For the drip irrigation projects (figure 4), semi structured and unstructured interviews were conducted with the manager/ owners of the farms, to identify the advantages and disadvantages, also the labour use, as well as to identify the profitability and the future benefits. One drip

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irrigation owner would name another drip irrigation project, such that in the end it turned out to be snow ball sampling (Bryman 2001).

Figure 4: Map of Sudan shows location of drip irrigation projects

Qualitative methods were used to collect prices for six types of vegetables in Khartoum market through structured interviews. The structured interview consist of a list of vegetable, agricultural inputs and dripping kit to identify the prices

From a list of vegetable traders, a random sample of 20 traders was selected using a random numbers.

Prices of agriculture input for both drip and canal irrigation were collected from companies and drip irrigation dealers through a check list of specific items.

To test the effects of drip irrigation on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), two trials were conducted at two locations of Umjawasir project. The first trial was established on 250 m² near the farms in phase #2, with 520 plants per nozzle at spacing between plants of 50 cm and 80 cm between rows

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(the plant spacing is according to the extension unit at Umjawasir project). Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) was selected, for its fast growth rate and high commercial value (Camciuc et al. 1996).

Water requirement for the trial was set at 3 lit per plant per day. Further adjustment of water requirement was done during the trail. However, the trail had to be abandoned after three weeks because of pump breakdown.

The second trial was conducted in phase # 0 of the project, which has more sand content. A water tank was erected to ensure availability of water in case a pump breaks down. The trial was done with the same equipment as in the first one, and the same plant spacing. The water requirement as the first trial was applied to the second trial, beside the cultural practices (fertilizers, and pesticides).

The second trial started in the 2^nd week of October till the 3^rd week of December. Few data were gathered from the second trail due to animals’ invasion.

3.3.2 Secondary data

Secondary data were collected from Ministry of irrigation, Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), Forestry research institute, Shambat research institute and ADRA/

SUDAN.

Structured interview was used to identify the policies and strategies for irrigation in Northern Sudan, along with the future plan for drip irrigation investment in Sudan.

Part of the reports on irrigation was collected from Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD) also part of the date palm information was collected from the reports at Shambat research institute in Khartoum state.

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS

3.4.1 Primary data

Descriptive analysis was used through cross tabulation from SPSS computer software to identify different features for canal and drip irrigation such as the advantages and disadvantages, crop grown per area, labour use, and to compare between traditional and cemented canal, as well as to compare between canal and drip irrigation.

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Simple calculation was used to identify the cost of production, total income in US$ and profitability for each crop when intercropped with date palm

Net present Value (NPV) for 10 % Social Discount Rate (SDR) was calculated for the Date’s fruit production for one hectare for drip and canal irrigation, in order to identify the future benefits from the standpoint of the present (Pearce et al. 1990). Internal Rate of Return (IRR) was calculated for both systems when growing date palm. The investment in drip and canal irrigation that correspond to the IRR was calculated by using goal seek function in the Excel program.

Part of the data that could fit into the statistical package was treated separately in different spread sheet e.g. focus group discussion and the general observation.

3.4.2 Secondary data

Secondary data were used as a back ground to under stand the attribute of different irrigation systems in Northern Sudan.

Information was gathered for date palm (phoenix dactylifera) for both canal and drip irrigation systems. The reason was, all of the drip irrigation projects included in this study are growing date palm, in addition to that dates is the main valuable crop grown in the Northern and Nile state (Reyad et al. 1997)

Table 2 summarizes the methodology of data collection and analysis, for the study. The summery tend to simplify the methodology and the purpose of the analysis.

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20 Table 2: Methodology for data collection and analysis

Sites Methods for data

collection Methods for analysis Purpose of the analysis Canal irrigation Individuals’

interview.

Focus group

discussion.

General observations

Descriptive statistic.

Net present value (NPV).

Internal rate of return (IRR)

To identify the advantages and disadvantages.

To assess the profitability of date palm when intercropped with different crop and vegetable.

To identify labour role in irrigation management.

To discover future benefit of date’s production.

Drip irrigation Individuals’

interview

General observation

Descriptive statistic.

Net present value (NPV).

Internal rate of return (IRR)

To identify the advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation.

To assess profitability of date palm when irrigated by drip.

To identify labour role in irrigation management.

To compare between drip and canal irrigation in term of profitability.

To discover future benefit of date’s production.

Khartoum

Markets Interview guide to

discover the prices of vegetables,

agriculture inputs and dripping kit

Mathematical calculation To discern the highest and lowest prices of vegetables.

To compare between the drip and canal inputs prices when growing 1ha of date palm trees.

Drip irrigation

trial Field trial Descriptive analysis To identify lesson learned from the trials.

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21

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 CANAL IRRIGATION

4.1.1 Farming system

In the Northern Sudan winter and summer are the principle cultivation seasons. Wheat, broad beans, vegetables and alfalfa, are grown in winter. Sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown in summer season. Winter season extend from October to March and summer season is from April to July.

In Umjawasir project wheat and broad bean are the main crops grown along with vegetables.

Wheat is considered as the main source of food, while broad bean is grown for commercial purposes and for home use in case of surplus. Alfalfa is grown as animal fodder and it has a high commercial value, (Table 3).

In the summer season, farmers tend to grow okra as a commercial crop (high generating income) and for home consumption. Sorghum grain is grown in small areas due to the high operational cost and the low income gained. Sorghum is grown as animal fodder and it has high prices in case of low rainfall. The straw of sorghum is used in traditional house construction in Umjawasir for the nomad communities.

Farmers in the summer season tend to grow few crops in small area of their farms due to the high operational cost in summer, which require more fuel and spare parts.

Agricultural activities depend on the underground water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer. A borehole was established for irrigation and the water is extracted by turbine pump. In the project area there are 16 boreholes that can irrigate 330 hectares. Each family at Umjawasir is allotted 1.68 ha of irrigated land.

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Table 3: crop profitability for year 2004 at Umjawasir project

Crop name Total income US$/ha Production cost US$/ha Profit US$/ha

Wheat 768 440 328

Broad beans 590 320 270

Alfalfa 2755 818 1,937

Okra 1,536 732 804

Sorghum grain 451 266 185

Sorghum fodder 360 182 178

Total 6,460 2,758 3,702

Source: Umjawasir project 2004

4.1.2 Problems of canal irrigation

Each borehole irrigates an area of 20-25 ha through canal network. In Umjawasir project there are two types of canal, cemented and traditional canals. The cemented canals are constructed by stones and cements, (Figure 5 a). Traditional canal is constructed by soil only, (Figure 5 b).

Three main problems are encountered within the canal irrigation. The most common problems are the mechanical damages (cracks) in the canal, followed by sand filling the canal and the last one is the excessive weeds interference in the canal. Table 4 shows how farmers respond to canal problems.

Table 4: number of respondents observing different problems in canal performance Problems

of cracks

Problems of Weeds

Problems of Sand filling the canal

Number of

respondents

33 17 14

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The mechanical damages (crack) of the canal were observed by 33 farmers out of 39 farmers.

Cracks in the canal are due to the clay contents in the sand that mixed with the cement for construction. Also the stones that is used for construction was not installed properly due to the uneven shape.

Weed interference in the canal were observed by 17 farmers out of 39 farmers. The weeds interference is related to crack in the canal. Water leakages in the canal through cracks lead to weed growth in the canal.

Problems of sand filling the canal during sandstorm were observed by 14 farmers. Mainly the canals in the Northern side of the project are exposed to sandstorm that blown in the winter season, as well as the canals of the southern side is exposed to southern sandstorm in summer season.

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Figure a: Traditional canal Figure b: Cemented canal with cracks

Figure 5: Traditional irrigation figure (a) and cemented canal figure (b)

Figure c: sand filling the canal Figure d: weeds on canal side

Figure 6: Canal problems at Umjawasir project in figure (c) and (d)

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4.1.3 Labour use

In canal irrigation system farmers hire labour for canal maintenance due to the long distances between boreholes from farms. In order to identify the role of labourers in canal maintenance, respondents were categorized into two groups; farmers hire labour and farmers who do not hire labour (self dependant). Table 5 identify number of farmers who hires labour for canal maintenance and farmers who are self dependent.

Table 5: Farmers hire labour and self dependant in relation to canal performance

Category Satisfied

with canal performance

Not satisfied with canal performance

Total numbers of

respondents

Farmers hire labour 9 12 21

Farmers do not hire labour ( self dependant) 18 0 18

From 39 respondents of Umjawasir project, 21 farmers were hiring labour, while 18 were not hiring labour (self dependant).

The reason for dissatisfaction is the water loss in the cemented canals through cracks, which needs labour force for continuous maintenance.

The nine framers agreed that with the current canal performance in the traditional canal that has less water loss compare to the cemented canals and the maintenance could be done by soil only while irrigation is taking place.

Farmers that do not hire labour (self dependants) were using traditional canals that do not necessary demand labour for maintenance.

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4.1.4 Comparison between cemented and traditional

A comparison was made between cemented and traditional canal in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Four main features were distinguished between cemented and traditional canal (Table 6). The traditional canal has advantages of low cost of maintenance. The labour payment for canal maintenance differs from one farmer to another. The payment is negotiable on area not on time base. The maintenance of traditional canal can be done while irrigation is taking place.

In the cemented canals, a skilled labour is needed for maintenance, as cement and sand is needed for the maintenance. After the handing over the project to the farmers committee they should secure fund for cement for maintenance of the cemented canals.

Table 6: comparison between cemented canals and traditional canals

features Constructed canals Traditional canals

Cost of construction High Low

Water delivery Good if it is well built Satisfactory Labour requirement More labour is needed if it is not

constructed properly

Less labour needed

Maintenance Should be done with cement and stone ( Costly)

With soil only

Distances Short canal Long canal

Affordability Wealthy or better off farmer Normal farmers

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4.1.5 Intercropping in canal irrigation

Different crops and vegetables are grown in Umjawasir in inter cropping systems. Therefore 70

% of farmers in Umjawasir project intercrop alfalfa with date palm. A market survey conducted from July to December 2005 in Khartoum Markets, to identify prices of vegetables that can be intercropped with date palm. Table 7 summarize the net profit of intercropping with date palm in Umjawasir project, when the date palm average net income is US$1,056/yr.

Table 7: intercropping contribution to date palm Crop/ 1ha Total average production/1ha/yr Total

average income (US$)/yr

Average production cost (US$)/yr

Average profit (US$)/yr

Average profit+

US$1,056

Alfalfa 11cuttingX210

hodXUS$1+US$342 (seeds sale)

2,851 822 2,029 3,085

Okra 45 kgX47 bag X US$0.73 1,551 986 565 1,621

Tomato 600kgXUS$3.5+600kgXUS$0.5 2,400 986 1,414 2,740

Cucumber 2000kgX US$0.60 1,200 986 214 1,270

Eggplant 1900kgX US$0.70 1,330 986 344 1,400

Intercropping of alfalfa with date palm increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 3085/yr. Tomato gained the second most profitable crop that increase the date palm hectare net income to US$2,740. Okra is the third profitable crops when it is intercropped with dates in canal irrigation which increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 1621/yr.

In Umjawasir farmers distribute one hectare into 210 parts, each part is know as “hod”. The size of “hod” is 42 m² where alfalfa is grown and it is used as a standard sale measure.The average price of one alfalfa “hod” is US$ 1 in addition alfalfa produces 111 kg of seeds which gains additional income of US$ 432/yr.

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The prices of alfalfa depend on the rainfall around the project. In case of no or little rainfall, the prices of alfalfa would increase tremendously and vice versa.

The production cost of alfalfa is less than the production cost of okra, and this due to the additional cost of transportation, tax…etc. for okra, but for the alfalfa is sold locally (Table 8)

Table 8: average production cost for different crops

Items Alfalfa Okra Tomato Cucumber Eggplant

Cost US$/ha

Tillage 39 39 39 39 39

Seeds 173 13 13 13 13

Fertilizers 24 48 48 48 48

Fuel 450 397 397 397 397

Labour 96 49 49 49 49

Lubricant & oil 20 20 20 20 20

Spare parts 20 20 20 20 20

Transportation, tax...etc 00 400 400 400 400

Total production cost 822 986 986 986 986

Total income 2,851 1,551 2,400 1,200 1,330

Profit 2,029 565 1,414 214 344

Vegetables can be grown only in winter season from October to March. Tomato under some cases can be grown in the summer season if it has good shade from high trees like date palm or citrus trees. Tomato gains the highest price in summer, which is US$ 3.5/kg and in winter US$

0.5/kg. Tomato growers started to make use of a certified seed that can be grown in summer.

Okra gains the second highest prices in the market survey and the prices decreases as winter approach. In Umjawasir farmers, in order to gain high prices for okra they slice it into small pieces and dry it under the shade. The dried okra can be cocked as food and it is very much consumed in Umjawasir and Khartoum as well as the whole North region.

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4.2 DRIP IRRIGATION

4.2.1 Overview of drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation projects in the Northern Sudan are established by private companies and NGOs.

These private companies are petrol oil companies, road construction companies and NGOs such as ADRA/SUDAN.

The main reason that, oil companies established drip irrigation in Northern Sudan was to protect the oil pipeline from sand drift when crossing the desert in the river Nile state. Road construction companies were protecting parts of the highway road that link Khartoum with the Northern state from sand drift by establishing drip irrigation projects.

ADRA/SUDAN established drip irrigation system for the green belts after facing difficulties in irrigation by canals. ADRA/SUDAN protects the farms by establishing green belt from eucalyptus and other trees. The green belt irrigated by canals along with additional extension of trees irrigated by dripping system.

Table 9: overview of drip irrigation projects in North Sudan

Trees and crop grown Project

name Location Area

/ha Establishment

cost US$/ha Year of establishment

Dates palm Eucalyptus Acacia Citrus Vegetables

Elmerooj N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 √ √ √ √ √

Elmarwa N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 √ √ √ √ √

Tharwat N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 √ √ √ √ √

Umjawasir N. state 1.2 4000-6000 2005 √ √ √ X X

Oil company Nile state 20 5000-10000 2003 √ √ √ X X

√ Grown X Not grown.

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4.2.2 Crops grown in drip irrigation

A field survey was conducted to identify different trees and crops that were grown in the drip irrigation project in Northern Sudan. Table 9 shows the crops and trees that are grown in drip irrigation projects.

Based on a field survey, eucalyptus are grown in all drip irrigation projects. Eucalyptus has been grown as a wind break at the edge of the farm.

All the drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan are located in remote desert areas, where sandstorm is a common phenomenon. A need of wind break from eucalyptus is highly prioritized to reduce the alarming rate of sandstorm in the project.

Date palm is grown in the six projects, as long term investment that can produce after several years. None of these projects started to produce date fruits, still after 2-4 years. In the drip irrigation projects, neither cereal crops nor vegetables were grown.

Based on a field survey undertaken in the six drip irrigation projects in the North Sudan, all the projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is not cheap.

Table 10: Opinion among respondents on drip irrigation

Project Cheap to

buy More

efficient Save

time Less labour

use for

operation and

maintenance

Dripping increases the productive

Number of agreed

respondents 0 6 6 4 4

Number of disagreed

respondents 6 0 0 2 2

All projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is more efficient than canal irrigation.

From table 10, it can be seen that respondents agreed that drip irrigation saves time compared to canal irrigation. In canal irrigation, more time is needed for irrigation depending on the distance between borehole and farm, as well as the capacity of the turbine pump and engine.

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Four out of the six respondents from the drip irrigation projects agreed that drip irrigation require less labour with high payment compare low payment in canal irrigation. The other two respondents disagreed because number of labour needed depend on the project area.

Four respondents agreed that drip irrigation increases the productivity more than canal irrigation.

The reason is that the agricultural practices such as fertilizers and pesticides application, are done to individual plant, whereas in canal irrigation, are done to whole area irrigated.

4.2.3 Labour use

In drip irrigation labourers are important for monitoring, operation and maintenance due to the technical sophistication of the system (Figure 7).

Monitoring consists of follows up of the nozzles, engine and water pump performance. Each nozzle irrigates one plant, and if several nozzles are not working properly that would lead to poor growth or death of the plant.

Maintenance consists of nozzles, valve, along with engine and water pump maintenance. A skilled labour is needed for the daily maintenance due to the technicality of the system. There are two types of maintenance, daily maintenance and yearly maintenance. The daily maintenance is a regular maintenance such as nozzles cleaning, valve…etc. The yearly maintenance is the overhaul of the engine and pump where it consists of changing spare parts, in addition of renewing the drip system if it is necessary.

Operation consists of engine and water pump operation to fill-in the water tank. In drip irrigation projects the labour used for maintenance is also responsible for the operating the engine and pump.

Mainly two labourers are hired for a project size of 16-20 ha for the three above tasks. One labourer is responsible for operation and the other is for maintenance, while both of them are responsible for monitoring.

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0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hiring labour for monitoring Hiring labour for maintenance Hiring labour for W.pump & enegine operation

Numbers of projects

Figure 7: labour task of drip irrigation projects

Challenges and Possibilities of Drip and Canal Irrigation in Northern Sudan Osman Ali Osman ELmakki