Navigating Complexity. A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

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Navigating Complexity. A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

Final Evaluation

NORAD COLLECTED REVIEWS 2 /2010

Elling N. Tjønneland & Chris Albertyn

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Norad collected reviews

The report is presented in a series, compiled by Norad to disseminate and share analyses of development cooperation.

The views and interpretations are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation.

Norad

Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

P.O. Box 8034 Dep, NO- 0030 OSLO Ruseløkkveien 26, Oslo, Norway

Phone: +47 22 24 20 30 Fax: +47 22 24 20 31 ISBN 978-82-7548-510-4

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Navigating Complexity

A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

Commissioned by Norad, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Embassy of Norway in Pretoria

Final Report June 2010

Elling N. Tjønneland & Chris Albertyn

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Executive Summary

This document provides an independent review of Training for Peace in Africa which, since its start in 1995, has been provided with NOK 170 million to strengthen African capacities for participation in peace support operations.

The focus of Training for Peace (TfP) has been on the police and civilian components of multidimensional peace operations through training, research and policy advice.

Over the past five years the programme has expanded both geographically and in scope. In addition to the original implementing partners – Institute for Security Studies (ISS), African Centre for Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) and the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) – TfP now also provides support to the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in West Africa, and to the planning element of the Eastern African Standby Brigade (EASBRIG). The Norwegian Police Directorate has also been brought into the programme to help facilitate a major expansion of pre- deployment training of police officers.

The review team’s overall conclusion is that TfP has been an important programme with highly relevant activities and outputs.

It has achieved important outcomes and it has made a significant contribution to the evolving African Peace and Security Architecture, especially the

support missions and the role of the police and civilians in such missions. At the same time the review finds that outcomes have been uneven and that the programme has struggled with implementing suggested measures to enhance effectiveness and efficiency. This is partly the result of insufficient attention to programme management and planning for results.

Purpose

The review was commissioned to examine the efficiency of TfP and the extent to which the programme developed according to plans in relation to the purpose. The review was thus looking back and assessed programme relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.

In addition the team was also asked to look to the future and advise on possible continuation after the expiration of the current phase at the end of 2010, providing possible recommendations for adjustments and corrections if the programme continued.

The review scrutinised extensive programme-related documentation and conducted nearly 60 interviews with TfP representatives and key informants in Norway, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Ethiopia and Ghana in February/March, 2010. The team also attended the TfP Annual General Meeting in March.

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Findings

Training has been the dominant activity within TfP. The overall impression of the team is that the programme has succeeded in providing significant numbers of highly relevant training activities and outputs. TfP has also achieved significant outcomes, but these are more uneven. A main current success is training of police officers for deployment in Darfur and in Somalia. The review emphasises that future training needs to become more directly informed based upon an assessment of needs and on specification of targets to be met. It will also require more emphasis on working with training provided by other donors and to align with programmes of the training institutions and the needs of the African Standby Force (ASF).

Research has been a core component of TfP since the start and a range of important publications have emerged. The team is less impressed by the current research activities. There is little systematic applied research and outputs are uneven and less satisfactory. Important efforts have, however, been made in 2008 and 2009 to improve research planning and to facilitate joint research.

TfP has recorded important achievements in providing technical assistance and support to the evolving African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) and the African Standby Force (ASF) in particular.

In the current phase this includes significant support to the AU Peace Support Operations Division (PSOD) and their preparations and planning for the role of the civilian component.

Furthermore, the team highlights the importance of TfP for evolving Norwegian policies and approaches to peacekeeping and peacebuilding in Africa. The TfP programme has provided the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with an important and valuable platform for dialogue and co-

operation with the AU, the UN and with other countries.

The team notes that TfP has evolved in a flexible way with much trust given to TfP partners and implementing agencies in defining their response to changing demands and priorities. This may have been important in the pioneering stage of the TfP, but in the current context more emphasis must be placed on using the available resources to achieve clearly defined TfP objectives and priorities. This is challenging and demanding considering the diversity of TfP partners, the rapid expansion of the programme in recent years and the changing context and demands.

The review team notes that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has attempted to facilitate a shift towards more focus and coherence in TfP in the current phase. Some improvements are also recorded in the last few years, but far less than expected by the team.

There remains insufficient attention to monitoring and reporting results beyond the listing of outputs. This gap is a weak link in programme management, and further reduces the ability of programme champions to effectively communicate programme impact. TfP is institutionally under-developed in providing systems for monitoring, learning and developing from its own interventions. TfP does not have an overall strategic plan from which the programme can monitor and determine its overall impact. This has weakened the effectiveness and efficiency of the programme.

The Ministry and the TfP partners have a shared responsibility for the weaknesses and shortcomings in programme management.

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Recommendations

Through TfP a strong platform has been established for further Norwegian support to peace support missions and dialogue with stakeholders. The team recommends a continuation of the programme, but also proposes a series of changes and adjustments to ensure that the programme can continue to make a relevant contribution. This includes recommendations for:

 a more clearly defined focus and strategic framework for the programme;

 stronger strategic and administrative management of the programme; and

 adjustments to some individual activities within training, research and policy advice.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACCORD African Centre for Constructive Resolution of Disputes

AFDEM African Civilian Standby Roster for Humanitarian and Peace Building Missions AGM Annual General Meeting

AMISOM AU Mission in Somalia

APSA AU Peace and Security Architecture APSTA African Peace Support Trainers Association ASF African Standby Force

AU African Union CAO Civil Affairs Officer CIMIC Civil-Military Coordination CMI Chr. Michelsen Institute

CPPC Civilian Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding Course CPX Command Post Exercise

CSO Civil Society Organisation

DPKO UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

€ Euro

EAPCCO Eastern Africa Police Chiefs Coordinating Organisation EAPSM Eastern African Peace and Security Mechanism

EASBRICOM Eastern African Standby Brigade Coordination Mechanism EASBRIG Eastern Africa Standby Brigade

ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ECCASBRIG Economic Community of Central African States Brigade ECOBRIG Economic Community of West African States Brigade ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EU European Union

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit

HQ Head Quarter

IAB International Advisory Board of TfP

IAPTC International Association of Peacekeeping Training Centres IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development in Eastern Africa IMTC International Mission Training Centre

IPSTC International Peace Support Trainers Centre ISS Institute for Security Studies

KAIPTC Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre LECIA Legon Centre for International Affairs

MAPEX Map Exercise

MFA Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

MINURCAT UN Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad MONUC UN Mission in Democratic Republic of Congo MoU Memorandum of Understanding

n. a. not available

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NASBRIG North African Standby Brigade NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NOK Norwegian Kroner

NORDEM Norwegian Resource Bank for Democracy and Human Rights NUPI Norwegian Institute of International Affairs

OSCE Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe PAPCBAP Pan African Police Capacity Building Program PBSO Peacebuilding Support Office

PCC Police Contributing Countries PLANELM Planning Element

PSO Peace Support Operation

PSOD Peace Support Operations Division REC Regional Economic Community RM Regional Mechanism

RPTC Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre SADC Southern African Development Community

SADCBRIG Southern African Development Community Brigade SADSEM Southern African Defense & Security Management Network

SAFDEM Southern African Civilian Standby Roster for International Humanitarian Missions SAPS South African Police Service

SARPCCO Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organization SOP Standard Operating Procedures

SSF SADC Standby Force TCC Troop Contributing Countries TfP Training for Peace in Africa TOT Training of Trainers UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UN DPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations UNAMID African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur UNSC UN Security Council

UNMIL UN Mission in Liberia UNMIS UN Mission in the Sudan UNOCI UN Operations in Cote d’Ivorie UNPOC United Nations Police Officers Course

USD US Dollar

VAWC Violence against Women and Children ZAR South African Rand

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1: Introduction

This report provides an independent review of Training for Peace in Africa which since its start in 1995 has been provided with NOK 170 million to strengthen African capacities for participation in peace support operations. The focus has been on the police and civilian components of multidimensional peace operation through training, research and policy advice. Over the past five years the programme has expanded both geographically and in scope. In addition to the original implementing partners – ISS, ACCORD and NUPI – TfP now also provides support to a training centre in West Africa (KAIPTC) and to the planning element of the Eastern African Standby Brigade (EASBRIG). The Norwegian Police Directorate has also been brought into the programme to help facilitate a major expansion of pre-deployment training of police officers.

This review was commissioned by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign (MFA) and the Embassy of Norway in Pretoria through Norad. Its purpose, as outlined in the Terms of Reference (attached as annex 1) was to examine the efficiency of TfP and the extent to which the programme developed according to plans in relation to the purpose. The review was thus looking back and assessed programme relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability. In addition the team was also asked to look to the future and advise on possible continuation after the expiration of the current phase at the end of 2010, and to provide, if TfP continues, recommendations for adjustments and corrections.

After a tendering process the contract to carry out the review was awarded to the Chr.

Michelsen Institute (CMI) in Norway. The review team was led by senior researcher Elling N.

Tjønneland (CMI) and comprised consultant Chris Albertyn (Chris Albertyn and Associates CC, South Africa) and research assistants Kari Heggstad and Michael Hertzberg (both CMI).

Director Gunnar Sørbø and Research Director Arne Strand (both CMI) provided quality control and early inputs into the preparation and planning of the review.

The review began in mid-January with data collection and a first round of discussions with the MFA and the Embassy in Pretoria. An inception report was submitted in mid-February. Over a period of close to eight weeks in February/March the team interviewed nearly 60 individuals in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana and Norway. The team also attended the Annual General Meeting of TfP in Nairobi in March, as well as the Annual General Meeting of the African Peace Support Trainers Association in Durban in February. A full list of those interviewed is provided in annex 2.

The review team was also expected to meet with senior management and officials in the Eastern African Standby Brigade Coordination Mechanism, but due to their undertaking an

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also prevented the team from having interviews with members of TfP’s international advisory board, UNAMID and other end users in Sudan.

The team has benefited from the support and assistance of a number of people. Programme managers and officials at TfP partner institutions, MFA and at several Norwegian embassies have provided much assistance to the team during the review. Above all, the team would like to take this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge and thank TfP partners and the numerous individuals interviewed. They gave graciously of their valuable time to facilitate the team’s country visits and to provide information, analysis, interpretations and explanations. The views of all of these stakeholders were crucial in helping the team to formulate its assessments and recommendations.

A draft report was submitted to Norad and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 6 April. The team received written comments from both and from the four TfP-partners.

The team has attempted to address the issues in the Terms of Reference and in the comments received. Needless to say, the flaws and omissions are entirely ours. The team is also responsible for the views and recommendations expressed in the final report.

Bergen and Durban 4 June 2010

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2: TfP – an overview

TfP was launched in 1995 as Training for Peace in Southern Africa. The idea originated in discussions between NUPI and MFA in 1994. It followed an emerging emphasis within the UN to work with regional organisations in peacemaking as well as a Norwegian wish to engage with the new South Africa. Following a fact-finding mission to South Africa in 1995, two South African NGOs – ISS (then named Institute for Defence Policy) and ACCORD - were selected as partners in Southern Africa. Together with NUPI as coordinating partner they were responsible for implementing the programme with funding from MFA.¹

Phase 1: 1995-2001

The objectives of TfP, as spelled out in the first project document, included:

- contribution to the building of a regional capacities for participation in peacekeeping operations through delivery of training programmes in SADC countries;

- provision of training to personnel from Defence, Foreign Affairs and NGOs in the region in these countries;

- develop knowledge of peacekeeping and conflict management through seminars and workshops; and

- promotion of policy development in peacekeeping.

ISS and ACCORD held a range of seminars and workshops and developed a strong capacity to do further work and training in this area. Facilitated by the TfP partners as well as the SADC Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre (RPTC) in Harare a number of people from Southern Africa also attended UN training courses in Norway (and other Nordic countries).

NUPI played a key role in the early years in transferring knowledge of peacekeeping to the partners in South Africa. They also provided lecturers (including staff from the Norwegian Police Directorate/Police Academy as well as the Norwegian Defence Force) to most of the workshops. The first workshops can best be described as introductory “awareness” seminars familiarising participants with peacekeeping issues.

1 The main sources of information for this overview chapter are L. C. Andresen et al., The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa”, Oslo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2000 (Evaluation Report 3/2000); M. C. Goulding et al., Review of the Training for Peace in Southern Africa programme, 16 August 2004 (unpublished review commissioned by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs); and Training for Peace in Africa, An Overview of the Training for Peace Programme, 1995-2008, n. p. (Oslo), n. d. (2009). Additional data are derived from the TfP

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Over time, and in conjunction with other initiatives outside of TfP, ISS and ACCORD developed significant capacity as African non-governmental organisations engaged in the peace and security sector. A division of labour also crystallised with ISS focusing more on the police and ACCORD on civilians. In 1998 ISS began with training of police and in 1999 ACCORD launched its first training courses in civil-military coordination and conflict management.

The partners also produced a range of publications and undertook activities seeking to contribute to policy development, especially in relation to South Africa’s emerging peacekeeping policies, but also at the regional level and the evolving SADC Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation.

Phase 2: 2002 – 2005/6

An independent evaluation in 2000 recommended a continuation of the programme. A new programme document covering the 2002-2005 period was finalised and funding was provided for a second phase.²

The project document defined the overall objective of TfP as being to

 contribute to state and human security in the SADC area through the establishment of a self-sustaining, multifunctional peacekeeping and peace-building capacity in the region.

Furthermore, a specific objective focussed on the provision of advice to the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the formulation of policies for peacekeeping, peacebuilding and reconciliation issues relevant to co-operation between Southern Africa and Norway.

The project document identified two key outputs from the second phase

 a substantial pool of trained people who are ready to participate in peacekeeping operations; and

 a self sustaining, multifunctional peace operations/peacekeeping training capacity in the SADC region.

The main activities would remain training; research; and policy development, publicity and information. In the preparation for the second phase it was considered to invite a fourth partner, the regional police organisation (SARPCCO) based in Harare, but due to the evolving political situation it Zimbabwe it was decided to drop that proposal. It was envisaged that a fourth partner would be identified in the first year. The evaluation report had suggested the involvement of NGOs in Zimbabwe.

Specialised training programmes were further developed. ISS provided its police training in close co-operation with SARPCCO while ACCORD provided its civilian peacekeeping and peacebuilding courses. Both also developed relations with the UN DPKO. ISS and ACCORD provided lecturers to training courses organised by others, including courses targeting military officers (e.g., South African War College and the SADSEM programme).

2 Cf. Training for Peace in Southern Africa 2002-2005, Programme document, Oslo: NUPI n.d. (unpublished).

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In 2003 an agreement was concluded between TfP and the Zimbabwe-based AFDEM (then SAFDEM) whereby AFDEM would maintain a database – a stand-by roster - of trained civilians available for deployment in peace support missions. AFDEM was also funded from Norway (in the early days also from Canada), but outside the TfP-budget.

TfP was also instrumental in establishing the African Peace Support Trainers Association (APSTA), the African Chapter of the International Association of Peacekeeping Training Centres (IAPTC). The first Secretariat (from 2001) was provided by ACCORD and in 2005 it moved to ISS.

This period saw a major expansion of ISS’ and ACCORD’s activities in Sub-Saharan Africa with both opening offices in other countries. TfP was one of several components in their activities on the continent. Developments in the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) also provided new opportunities and new demands. In particular the AU decision to develop an African Standby Force (ASF) was to have important implications for the direction and focus of TfP.

MFA commissioned a mini-review of TfP in 2004. Following their recommendations and a subsequent report from NUPI it was decided in 2005 to expand TfP to West Africa and to invite KAIPTC to become a new partner. A pilot phase was envisaged. Shortly thereafter the original TfP partners also recommended that TfP be extended to cover the whole of Africa (for practical purposes Sub-Saharan Africa). This was later approved by MFA.

Phase 3: 2007-2010

In 2006 the MFA decided to extend TfP for a new phase, but made a number of changes and adjustments. These included

- TfP should have a stronger focus on AU and the evolving ASF; and

- MFA’s strategic and political management of the programme should be strengthened.

The financial frame should stay the same (NOK 15 million per year to the four partners), but it was also stated that additional funding may be allocated from 2007 for activities that could strengthen the civilian dimension (including policing) of peace support missions.

Changing management structures (see below) delayed the start-up. Bridging funding was provided for 2006 and 2007 while the third phase – now covering the 2008-2010 period – was prepared. Furthermore, at the end of 2007 MFA – as a result of growing demand for training, especially of police personnel to UNAMID – decided to expand the framework to NOK 23 million in 2008. In addition it decided upon an increased TfP focus on Eastern Africa with funding provided directly to EASBRIG.

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The programme document for the third phase became available as a programme framework document in May 2008.³ It was prepared by MFA based on applications from each of the four partners. It stated that the

“overall goal of the TfP programme is to promote peace through improved and self- sustaining African civilian and police capacity for the management and implementation of peace operations and peacebuilding missions in Africa, adapted to the emerging African security architecture.

The needs and priorities of the African Union (AU), Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and other regional mechanisms, as well as that of the United Nations in Africa, inform the direction and strategies of the TfP Programme. The programme focus is on the operationalization of the civilian and police components of the African Standby Force (ASF), and on contributions to the development of an operational ASF roster with a pool of trained civilian capacities. Both training and policy development should focus especially on support to the AU, RECs and African states in developing the ASF. The civilian and police capacity developed for the ASF are also intended to benefit United Nations peace operations in Africa.

The purpose is to contribute to strengthening African capacities for effective integration of civilian and police dimensions in African peace operations and peacebuilding missions. In order to achieve this, the programme aims at delivering capacity-building training, research and policy development support that serves to enhance the efforts of the AU and Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in building African capacities for peace missions under UN or AU auspices by focusing on the following key objectives:

- Contributing to building stronger regional police training capacity, including a flexible and significant pool of police trainers, to cope with the raising demands for mission specific police training in Africa;

- Contributing to building a reliable regional stand-by capacity of civilian experts for peacekeeping missions and peacebuilding elements of the African security architecture, including AU PSOD and relevant sections in the regional communities/mechanisms;

- Advocate and support the development of the ASF civilian dimension;

- Contributing to the creation of a common language and common culture of peacekeeping and peacebuilding on the continent that will serve to support collective approaches to security, peace support operations, conflict management;

and

- Promoting policy development and innovate ideas from both within and outside the continent so as to improve the understanding, organization and conduct of peace support operations in the African region.

The Programme shall strive for cost-effective, demand-driven and sustainable approaches. This also implies an increased focus on cooperation and coordination with international and regional organisations, in particular the UN and AU. Also, TfP partners should cooperate actively on training issues and programs. The partners should strive to follow up and implement UNSC Resolution 1325. Gender and HIV/AIDS dimensions should be incorporated at all levels where relevant.”

The main programme outputs identified in the programme framework consist of training of civilian and police peacekeeping and peacebuilding personnel, applied research and policy development and public outreach.

3 Cf. Training for Peace in Africa, Phase 3: 2008-2010, Programme Framework (22.05.08) (unpublished).

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In the third phase a main focus of ISS has remained on training of police, especially through the delivery of UNPOC courses through the regional police organisations in SADC and Eastern Africa. Training on HIV/AIDS and VAWC are also provided through SARPCCO. A database of police personnel trained through ISS courses has been developed. Technical support to policy development at the AU and EASBRIG, and to a lesser extent SADC, is also provided.

ACCORD has shifted its training to in-mission training and mission-specific training in UN and AU missions. It has also concentrated much on technical support to the AU in developing policies and capacities on the role of civilians in peace support missions, and on staffing requirements and stand-by rosters.

KAIPTC has provided pre-deployment training for UNAMID as well as applied research and advisory work on broader security issues in West Africa, especially related to security sector reform in Liberia.

NUPI’s role in the third phase has primarily revolved around research, including being a focal point for joint research projects, as well as being in charge of the information strategy, website and TfP-branding. They also do advisory work for MFA, especially in relation to UN and to the UN DPKO.

A main development in the third phase was the expanded demand for training, especially tactical pre-deployment training for missions in Sudan (UNAMID) and Somalia (AMISOM) The Norwegian Police Directorate was brought into the programme – although not as a regular partner – to help manage the demand for pre-deployment training of police for UNAMID. Training was delivered both in Nigeria (2008) and Ghana (2009) through the national police agencies in those countries as well through KAIPTC (2009). Norwegian trainers to West Africa have been limited with most trainers provided from a local pool.

In the case of Eastern Africa – which emerged as a major new focus for TfP – a Norwegian senior police officer was seconded to the EASBRICOM. Additional TfP-funding was made available for recruitment of local police and civilians to this facility. EASBRICOM remains the only REC/RM with a civilian component. Pre-deployment training – mainly for UNAMID and AMISOM - was provided with support from the Police Directorate (2009) together with a Nordic team of trainers supplemented by – compared to West Africa – a smaller team of trainers from Eastern Africa (mainly recruited from the pool trained by ISS through EAPCCO). Training was provided through IPTC in Nairobi.

AFDEM continued to expand and maintain its database and stand-by roster for civilians (with Norwegian funding, but outside TfP).

The third phase also saw a much stronger involvement by the MFA, both in strategic management of TfP and especially in relation to the UN. This was also crucial in facilitating the greater use of TfP resources and the police directorate in pre-deployment training.

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Finance and management

TfP is a big programme. In total around NOK 170 million has been allocated to TfP since the start in 1995. This includes NOK 70 million for the current 2008-2010 phase. A complex and changing structure has been in place to manage a programme with many partners and implementing agencies.

From the start NUPI was managing and coordinating the programme on behalf of the MFA.

This ended in 2006 with the MFA assuming direct responsibility, first managed from HQ and from 2008 through the Embassy in Pretoria. The annual general meeting is the main and only formal arena for joint consultations between the partners and between the partners and the funder. Originally, a steering committee bringing all parties together in a more tightly organised programme was envisaged but this was abolished in late 1996. Since then a Director’s meeting has met infrequently (the last time in 2008) and in 2009 a first (and at the time of the review only) formal meeting of programme managers from the partner institutions took place.

At the beginning a Norwegian reference group was established composed of representatives from MFA and other Norwegian agencies. The reference group was replaced by an International Advisory Board in 2005 composed of prominent and experienced individuals.

They were appointed by MFA after consultations with partners. The IAB meets once a year and provide advice to MFA as well as the TfP on strategic development of the programme.

Funding for TfP is provided from the Department for Regional Affairs and Development (where the two Africa sections are located). This Department is responsible for the management of TfP and for ensuring that the programme is implemented and results achieved. The Department (first through Africa Section I and then Africa Section II) had for a brief period also the direct co-ordinating responsibility before this was delegated to the Embassy in Pretoria. Other Embassies are also involved in certain management tasks, especially the Embassy in Abuja through the Accra office in relation to KAIPTC. The Embassy in Addis – responsible for relations with AU – also interacts with TfP. In the past Norad had some management responsibilities but after the transfer of Norad’s operational responsibilities to MFA Norad involvement has mainly been to provide technical advice and assessments if requested to do so by MFA or an Embassy.

Strong professional oversight and policy support have, since the start, been provided by MFA’s Department for Security Policy and its Section for Global Security Issues. This Section has played a key role in facilitating the recent expansion of TfP and the use of TfP- resources in pre-deployment training for UNAMID and AMISOM.

Profile of partners

TfP has four partners, each bringing a distinct profile and area of competence to TfP.

The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) is a civil society organisation based in Durban, South African. It was established in 1992 with the primary objective to provide a mechanism to deal with conflicts arising out of the transition from

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apartheid to democracy in South Africa. It is now an organisation that works throughout Africa to bring creative African solutions to the challenges posed by conflict on the continent.

In 2009 ACCORD had a budget of ZAR 60 million and a staff compliment of 81 (of which 44 work at the Burundi office). In addition to TfP funding, Norway also provides some project funding to ACCORD (mainly for work in Burundi).

ACCORD’s primary aim is to influence political developments by bringing conflict resolution, dialogue and institutional development to the forefront as an alternative to armed violence and protracted conflict. ACCORD specialises in conflict management, analysis and prevention and intervenes in conflicts through mediation, negotiation, training, research, and conflict analysis. It publishes a magazine (Conflict Trends) and a peer reviewed journal (African Journal for the Constructive Resolution of Conflicts).

The Institute for Security of Studies (ISS) was established in 1991 (as the Institute for Defence Policy) with a focus on defence and security transformation in South Africa. It has evolved into a pan-African applied policy research institute with offices in Cape Town, Nairobi, and Addis Ababa in addition to a separate head office in Pretoria.

The ISS is an established think-tank working in the area of African human security. It seeks to mainstream human security perspectives into public policy processes and to influence decision makers within Africa and beyond. The objective of the Institute is to add critical balance and objectivity by providing timely, empirical research and contextual analysis of relevant human security issues to policy makers, area specialists, advocacy groups, and the media. It maintains a very comprehensive website and has an extensive publication list, including the publication of peer reviewed journal (African Security Review) and a magazine (Africa.org).

Norway provides substantial core funding to ISS in addition to TfP-project funding. ISS reports employing 137 staff members in 2010 with a budget of ZAR 175 million. In 2009 the ISS annual budget was ZAR 155 million.

Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra, Ghana was officially opened in 2003. The Centre was envisaged to address not only Ghana’s needs for training to meet the changing demands of complex and multidimensional peacekeeping, but also the requirements of the West African sub-region and the continent. The Centre was named after the former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in recognition of his contributions to world peace and security. It is recognized by ECOWAS as one of three regional training centres in West Africa.

The Centre provides training for Ghanaian military and police personnel to be deployed in peace support missions. Furthermore, it also runs a number of training workshops and seminars with participants from other countries. The Centre also organises policy seminars and research on broader issues of peace and security, including security sector reform.

During 2008/09 year the British Government withdrew its substantial financial support and staffing at KAIPTC – comprising more than 30% of overall budget. Norway and the Nordic countries stepped in and provided bridging funding in 2009. There is currently some discussion among Nordic countries to develop a joint funding arrangement for KAIPTC.

While KAIPTC enjoys the support of many donor countries, the recent spread in balance of donor support has enabled much stronger local ownership and direction.

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KAIPTC has a staff of 207, of which 153 are sponsored by the Ghana Ministry of Defence, two by the Ghana Police, ten through National Service, and five attached interns. 47 positions are funded by donor agencies. Through the 2009 bridging fund Norway provided for five positions (in addition to TfP funding).

The 2009 KAIPTC audited figures declare a 2009 operating cost of about USD 5.4 million.

Germany, Sweden and Norway are the biggest external donors to KAIPTC.

The Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) was established by the Norwegian Parliament in 1959, with the aim of contributing to greater awareness and insight into international issues through research and policy advice. It has a staff compliment of 72 and a budget of about NOK 65 million (2009). It publishes 2 peer reviewed journal and is recognised as a main think-tank and research institute on Norwegian foreign policy.

In addition to the formal partners three other institutions plays a key role in TfP. The African Civilian Standby Roster for Humanitarian and Peace Building Missions (AFDEM) is small institution (operating out of the offices of the Legal Resource Foundation in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe). AFDEM have developed and maintained a database and stand-by roster of civilians available for deployment to African and international organisations in humanitarian operations, democracy interventions and peace support missions. It facilitates deployment by assisting in identifying and recruiting personnel. Main deployments have been for various UN agencies (including UN peace missions) as well as for election observation teams in SADC countries and other African countries. It was established in 2000 with funding from Norway and Canada. Today Norway, but outside the TfP-framework, is the sole donor apart from minor project funding from Germany (GTZ).

The Norwegian police’ history of engagement with TfP began with the launch of the project in 1995. It played an important role through NUPI in facilitating transfer of knowledge to TfP partners in South Africa on the police dimension in peace support missions. Up until 2007 this was mainly through the Norwegian Police Academy. NUPI and the Academy provided lecturers to most ISS training courses for the police. Since 2008 there has been a direct involvement by the Norwegian Police Directorate in TfP. The directorate has delivered TfP training programmes in West Africa (Nigeria, Ghana and through KAIPTC) and in Eastern Africa (Kenya). Since 1989 this Directorate has participated in a number of international operations, mainly through the UN, EU and OSCE as well as bilateral projects of which TfP is one. This is currently financially and administratively regulated through a framework agreement between the Police Directorate and the MFA. Current deployments in Africa are in Liberia (UNMIL) and Sudan (UNMIS and UNAMID).

The independent coordination secretariat (EASBRICOM) for the Eastern African Standby Force (EASBRIG) was operationalised in 2007. It is one of the five RECs/RMs providing a regional standby force for the AU. EASBRIG aims to provide the Eastern Africa Region with appropriate capabilities to prevent and manage the incidence of conflicts, and facilitate rebuilding. It comprises Sudan, the Horn of Africa, Indian Ocean Island States and countries belonging to the East African Community. The Secretariat is relatively large and has significant donor funding, including technical advisors. TfP has since 2008 funded the secondment of a Norwegian police commissioner and – since 2009 – several positions in the police and civilian component of the Secretariat.

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3: Findings: Achievements, results and impacts

How do we measure the impact of a programme like TfP? This is a challenging task. Partly there is a methodological problem in isolating the effects of one particular intervention on social, institutional and political change. Partly because TfP project documents are weak in addressing results. Data tends to be confined to listing of activities and outputs with limited focus on outcomes and indicators measuring progress. These weaknesses are also strongly emphasised in Norad’s desk-appraisal of the 2008 programme framework as well as in the 2004 Review, and in the 2000 Evaluation.⁴

The team’s overall findings, based on reading of documents, interviews with a wide range of stakeholders, and assessments of the dynamics of the evolving context are that TfP has made a significant contribution to the management of peace support missions in Africa. TfP through its partners has delivered high-quality products and services which have been highly relevant to the TfP objectives. Outcomes are evident in use of personnel trained, and in the role of the technical input from TfP partners in the evolving African Peace and Security Architecture. In particular TfP has played an important part in advancing the role of civilians and the police in planning and preparation of the ASF, and in contributing to the further development of capacities within ISS and ACCORD to engage with peacekeeping issues, and in informing Norwegian foreign policy.

Flexibility in management and approach coupled with alignment with African priorities, and strong commitment and support from MFA are key elements behind these achievements. The ability of the partners to address weaknesses and adapt to changing contexts are also important enabling features of the TfP history.

The team has however also identified weaknesses in TfP which have reduced both the effectiveness and efficiency of the programme. This has become more evident with the recent expansion of the programme. Insufficient attention to management by MFA, and failure to ensure that partners remain focused and respond collectively to changing contexts, have contributed to reduced effectiveness and efficiency of TfP.

The team concludes that the growth of TfP in budget, partners and activities challenges the MFA to arrive at decisions through a strategic balancing act of some key factors; these include:

4 Cf. Norad’s unpublished desk appraisal of TfP from 29 April 2009 (commissioned by MFA’s Regional Department); L. C. Andresen et al., The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa”, Oslo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2000 (Evaluation Report 3/2000); and M. C. Goulding et al., Review of the Training for Peace in Southern Africa programme, 16 August 2004 (unpublished review commissioned by the Ministry of Foreign

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 Further developing and communicating an overall strategic framework whereby partners’ individual contributions can be seen to be more than the sum of their individual parts;

 Finding a balance between flexible support, and sufficiently detailed planning and reporting whereby partners can demonstrate focus, relevance, outcomes, and that together, the MFA can add up the parts to demonstrate overall impact of the programme in contributing towards achieving the selected priority outcomes;

 In a sector that has become crowded with actors, meeting the management challenge of coordination internal and external to TfP. How to incentivise coordinated efforts among TfP partners, and how to coordinate with other donors working to achieve the same objectives with TfP partners, and with key target groups?

The team will assess TfP’s contributions in training, research and policy development. But first we need to summarise the baseline – the context. What was the situation before the intervention began, and what are the situation and challenges now? How has the African peace and security architecture evolved? And how does TfP compare to other external interventions to support peace support operations in Africa?

Contextual background: The African Peace and Security Architecture

There have been major changes in African capacities to manage conflicts and to contribute to peace support missions since the start of TfP 15 years ago. This is indicated by the sheer number of peacekeepers from Africa. About 35 000 of the nearly 75 000 UN peacekeepers currently in Africa (January 2010) are drawn from African troop contributors (compared to 20 000 of 50 000 in 2005 and 9000 of 14 000 in 2001).

Since 1995 there have been seven African Union or subregional peacekeeping operations: in Sierra Leone (1997-99); in Guinea-Bissau (1999); in Cote d’Ivoire (2003-2004); in Burundi (2003-2004); in Darfur (2004 to date); in Comores (2008); and in Somalia (2007 to date).

Darfur (UNAMID) and Somalia (AMISOM) are multidimensional involving also police and civilian components in addition to the military. The mission in Darfur has the highest number of police in any peace support mission to date.

The African Union has also developed the African Peace and Security Architecture with the Peace and Security Council as the primary decision-making body. Officially launched in 2004 the architecture now encompasses a range of conflict-prevention activities supported by the panel of the Wise and the Continental Early Warning System and most importantly five subregional response elements that form the African Standby Force (ASF).⁵

The ASF is prepared for rapid employment for a range of peacekeeping operations. Six mission scenarios were identified ranging from a military advisor to a political mission (scenario 1) to AU intervention in cases of grave circumstances (scenario 6). The ASF is not

5 While TfP project documents may be weak on baseline information, most partners have published extensively on the evolving peace and security architecture although mostly outside the framework of TfP-funding. See e.g., Solomon A. Dersso, The role and place of the African Standby Force within the African Peace and Security Architecture, Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies 2010 (ISS Paper 209, January). The ISS, in particular, also maintains a good website on this subject (www.issafrica.org).

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envisaged as a standing force, but as a standby multidisciplinary force with military, police and civilian components in their countries of origin ready for deployment at appropriate notice.

The ASF is organised into five regional brigades:

 The Southern African Development Community (SADC) brigade (SADCBRIG);

 The East African Peace and Security Mechanism (EAPSM), which is known as the Eastern Africa Standby Brigade (EASBRIG);

 The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) brigade (ECOBRIG);

 The North African Regional Capability (NARC) brigade, which is known as the North African Standby Brigade (NASBRIG); and

 The Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) brigade (ECCASBRIG).

Each of the regional economic communities (RECs)/regional mechanisms (RMs) shall establish a small full-time planning element, a brigade headquarters, and pledged brigade units. Each REC/RM are expected to prepare by 2015 a capability consisting of military, police and civilian elements of about 5000 personnel with an initial capability by 2010.

The AU has made much progress, and kept deadlines, with regard to the elaboration of various documents and concepts, but is lagging behind in several other areas. The civilian component is for example lagging substantially behind. Neither the AU nor the RECs/RMs has staff in place to deal with this (with the exception of EASBRIG). There remains insufficient training capacity to meet the demands. There are some training centres on the continent that can provide regional and continental support, but not with the capacity to meet with the ASF training needs. Nor is a rostering system for maintaining a database on availability of police and civilian capability in place. In the current deployments by AU we also note that the civilian component is very limited (with a current level of about 50 persons).

The AU has set ambitious goals for the ASF. These goals are also particularly demanding given the multinational and multinational character of the standby force. An added challenge – and major constraint - for the AU is also that they have to deal with the double challenge of both building its institutions and responding to crises. The AU is still very much an institution in transition and does not yet have the structures and human resources in place to deal with its new tasks and goals. A failure to develop the institutional capacity may easily lead to a situation where the needs to respond to crises undermines the attention necessary for the further development of institutional capacity.

External funding is crucial to achieve both institutional development and to fund costly peace support missions. The AU receives contributions from donors both in financial aid and in kind, but much of this support is ad hoc and, in addition to inhibiting long-term planning, is complicated by the individual requirements of donors for accounting, reporting and auditing.

Currently there are more than 130 different contributions channelled to the AU – each with its own monitoring and reporting requirements.

A UN/AU high-level panel on the financing of AU-led Peace Support Missions (the Prodi

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partnership in peace operations.⁶ Not much seems to have happened to it recently. There is still a degree of scepticism within the UN and UN Security Council of the readiness and institutional capacity of the AU.

These challenges are also evident – with regional variations – in the RECs/RMs. The cases of Eastern African Peace and Security Mechanism and the SADC Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation are illustrative. In the case of Southern Africa – the main focus of TfP in the first 10 years of its operations – SADC has a long history of engaging with peace and security issues. It originated with the Frontline States in the 1970s, but became more institutionalised with the SADC Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation and the establishment of a small Organ Directorate (secretariat) at the SADC Secretariat in 2002.

Following the AU decisions on the establishment of the ASF, it has established a planning element to facilitate the SADC Standby Force. Originally fully staffed by military officers seconded by member states (now 9 officers), it now also has a police component (6 persons) and officers for corrections/prisons. Limited progress has however, been made in establishing a civilian component as required by the AU roadmap although a secondment from a member state (Lesotho) to head up a civilian component is in the pipeline. At the SADCBRIG’s 2009 field exercise in South Africa a number of NGOs were however, invited to participate.

The SADC Organ also has two subsidiary organisations. One is the Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre (RPTC) located in Harare. SADC is the only REC/RM with a training centre funded by member states. They have a professional staff of four and two senior administrators funded through the regular SADC budget and support staff (11) provided by the host country (Zimbabwe) and operates from their own conference venue with accommodation facilities for up to 30 people. The RPTC staff includes a police training officer and they are expecting a SADC allocation for a military and civilian training officer. Funding for training has been a major constraint. RPTC was established with Danish support but when that and other donor- funding came to a halt as a result of the political development in Zimbabwe the RPTC struggled for years to secure funding for training courses. This is however now beginning to change. Funding has from 2009 been coming from outside sources (mostly from EU’s Africa Peace Facility provided through the AU and filtering down via the SADC planning element, but also from other European sources such as Germany, France and – in 2010 – also the UK).

The RPTC does not have the capacity at present to provide regional pre-deployment and mission specific training (in Southern Africa this mainly takes place at the national level).

There is also a regional law enforcement agency, the Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Coordination Organisation (SARPCCO), which acts as Interpol’s regional office, but now falls under the SADC Organ. SARPCCO are providing train-the-trainer courses for police officers from member states in peace support operations (mainly through UNPOC courses provided to junior police officers and delivered by TfP/ISS). The clarification of roles and responsibilities between the RPTC and SARPCCO in providing training for police officers for peace support missions still to be finalised, but the expectations on both sides are that this will shift to the RPTC.⁷

6 See the Report of the African Union-United Nations panel on modalities for support to African Union peacekeeping operations, New York: UN 2008 (A/63/666 S/2008/813) (Report from the Prodi Panel).

7 See also the report from the SADC RPTC curriculum development workshop 2^nd -4^th February 2010, Harare, Zimbabwe (unpublished).

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The provision of peacekeepers from the SADC to ongoing UN/AU peace operations is however, still low compared to other regions. In January 2010 deployment from the 15 SADC members states to UN missions (including UNAMID) was less than 4000 compared to 35 000 from the rest of Africa.

SADC’s relations with outside donors in this area have remained poor. Apart from funding from the EU peace facility provided through the AU, the main external funding – but on a limited scale – is coming from Germany through GTZ which provides funding for some regional staff in the Organ directorate as well as some project funding in the area of electoral observation, conflict mediation and development of training capacities at the RPTC and SARPCCO. GTZ has also helped strengthen the capacity of SADC Council of NGOs to engage with the SADC Organ, including the signing of a MoU.

The regional mechanism in Eastern Africa is different from SADC (and other RECs) both in its setup and in its approach to funding from external sources. It is not based on any of the RECs, but is a construction of the AU’s ASF vision. AU has 5 official regions, but recognises 8 regional economic communities. To create a standby force from Eastern Africa a special Regional Mechanism (RM) had to be established. At first it was based at IGAD, but since many countries in the region are not members of this REC a separate RM had to be set up. It comprises highly divided, fractured and volatile sub-regions – from Sudan, the Horn of Africa, East African Community (except Tanzania which is with SADC) and Island states.

This mechanism has succeeded in establishing a fairly large planning element, but its support and anchorage in member states may be weak. It has a nearly fully staffed military (14), police (5) and civilian component (4). Several of these positions are funded by donor countries directly (Norway through TfP funds 2 positions in the civilian component and 3 in the police component). Significantly, EASBRICOM also has a number of technical advisors from donor countries. This includes 8 in the military component; 2 in the police component;

and 2 in the civilian component. The regional training is provided through the Kenyan International Peace Support Training Centre (IPTC), which is also a well-funded institution.

With TfP-funds – through the Police directorate - it has provided training of police for deployment in UNAMID and AMISOM as well as for EASBRICOM’s police roster.

Challenges and capacity constraints to peacekeeping capacities are not confined to the AU and their RECs/RMs. The UN, the dominant player in peace support operations in Africa, also experiences difficulties. This is also evident at the technical level and in their capacity to deploy. The UN finds themselves overstretched and confronted with numerous and increasingly complex operations all across the globe. A major challenge of direct relevance for TfP, has been very slow deployment rates to missions in Africa. A number of the current missions are plagued by high vacancy rates. At the end of 2008 UN operations globally were short of about 18 000 people, or 20% of the authorized level of more than 90 000 troops and military observers. The average vacancy rate for international civilian staff has been around 22% and 34% for police personnel. The deployment rates have slowed down over the years.

The vacancy rates for the UNAMID - the hybrid UN/AU mission in Darfur – are particularly high. In 2008 the recorded discrepancy between authorised and deployed staff was 7121 (37%) military troops, 3665 (57%) police and 5034 (56%) civilian personnel.⁸

8 These figures are derived from A. Solli et al., Bottlenecks to Deployment? The Challenges of Deploying

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Donors and external support

Financial and technical assistance are important requirements for the AU and the RECs/RMs to succeed both in its ongoing peace support operations and in the building of the ASF. Many donor organisations and non-African governments are providing or offering support in these efforts. When the TfP-programme was launched in 1995 it was fairly unique in its efforts to move beyond purely military dimensions in approaches to peacekeeping. Today there are a plethora of support programmes and offers for co-operation from a very large number of countries and agencies.⁹

Most programmes are linked to specific countries or sub-regions, but there are also a few Africa-wide initiatives. Most significant is the EU-funded Africa Peace Facility, a fund established to support the AU’s peace operations (including conflict prevention and post- conflict stabilisation), the evolving African Peace and Security Architecture and capacity building of the AU and the RECs/RMs. Significant funding is also available for training institutions servicing the needs of the peace and security architecture. Only limited funds have so far been disbursed and spent on training. The Facility was launched in 2003 and the current allocation (2008-2010) amounts to € 300 million.¹⁰

Germany and Canada are also active with major programmes in TfP’s area of operation. On the German side there are several programmes and projects. Of particular relevance is GTZ’s African Police Programme, a project started in 2008 to support police capacity by strengthening national police structures in 9 countries with UN peace operations as well as support to the deployment of police in peace operations. Support is also provided to the AU PSOD to develop and expand its police planning unit. This includes staffing at PSOD (3 police experts and a police commissioner) and funding for development of training structures and conceptual improvement. The PSOD component is funded with €1.4 million in the 2008- 2010 period. GTZ also provides funding to the AU’s Directorate on Peace and Security (early warning and post-conflict reconstruction), and contributes to the UNDP’s multi-donor programme to the same directorate.

GTZ also has related programmes in several sub-regions. In SADC it has a programme which apart from funding to the SADC Organ directorate and activities, also has provided project funding for AFDEM related to election observation, and for curriculum development at the regional training centre (RPTC). In Eastern Africa, GTZ provides funding to the civilian component in EASBRICOM. In West Africa its also has projects to support the civilian component of ASF, including funding to KAIPTC.¹¹

9 See also the overview of the various donor-funded programmes and projects provided in S. Klingebiel et al., Donor Contributions to the Strengthening of the African Peace and Security Architecture, Bonn: German Development Institute 2008 (Studies Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik 38) and in Nicoletta Pirozzi, EU Support to African Security Architecture: Funding and Training Components, Paris, EU Institute for Security Studies 2009 (Occasional papers, 76).

10 See also the joint communiqué from 6th meeting of the joint coordination committee of the African Peace Facility, Addis Ababa, 3 February 2010 (http://www.africa- union.org/root/UA/Actualites/2010/fev/Joint%20Communique%206th%20JCC%202010%20VERSION%205%

20FINAL%204-2-2010%20_2.pdf) and the unpublished Report of the African Union and European Support to African Training Institutions Workshop, Nairobi, 8^th – 12^th February 2010. This followed a joint AU/EU assessment of all training institutions with a regional or continental focus that conduct training in the three components of the ASF (military, police and civilian).

11 Data on the GTZ activities are derived from interviews and from the GTZ website – www.gtz.de

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Germany – from its Foreign Office – also provides direct funding to The Pearson Peacekeeping Centre in Ottawa. The Pearson Centre has for many years, with Canadian funding, provided training programmes for African police working through Canadian Police.

A special Pan African Police Capacity Building Program (PAPCBAP) has been launched which seeks to strengthen the capacity of the police to participate more effectively in AU and/or UN peace support operations. Originally with a focus on West Africa it has now expanded to cover other regions and includes components focusing on “train-the-trainer”

courses and working with national and regional institutions.¹²

Most traditional donor countries will have one or more support programmes. The bigger countries (such as the US, France or the UK) all have major programmes for the military.

Training is an important focus for many. Also the “non-traditional” foreign countries – especially the major South powers – are becoming increasingly important players in the field.

India (together with neighbouring Pakistan and Bangladesh) is a major troop-contributing country to peace operations in Africa. There are consultations between the AU and India on co-operation related to civilian dimensions in multidimensional peace operations and post- conflict reconstruction.¹³ China is also becoming increasingly active. It is also the biggest supplier of troops to UN missions in Africa among the permanent members of the Security Council.

South Africa has become an important role-player for many Northern donor countries seeking to build partnerships with South Africa in third countries in Africa. This has become strongly evident in police operations. The UK has entered into co-operation with the Southern African Police Service (SAPS) in the DRC. Sweden is doing the same with SAPS in Rwanda and in November 2009 – after several years of preparation - Norway signed a business plan for support to SAPS activities in Sudan. Training is a core component in all of these programmes.

This provides the context for the major interventions by Norway and others from the 1990s to provide training programmes to build capacities for participation in peacekeeping operations.

What has been achieved?

Training

Training has remained the dominant core activity of TfP since inception. The emphasis, attention and target groups have changed over the years with a current strong focus on tactical training for deployment in UN/AU operations. The 2008 programme framework states that training remains a core activity and shall focus on clearly identified needs relating to civilian and police dimensions.¹⁴ Furthermore, the framework emphasises that:

“The programme strives to develop a robust and flexible capacity to handle urgent and unpredictable training requests. Emphasis will be on "in-time" training, i.e. training in advance of deployment/employment of personnel to new or ongoing peace missions, and

`in-mission' training, when training is optimally delivered in ongoing missions as new training needs emerge.”

12 See also the Pearson website for additional information on their Africa programmes - www.peaceoperations.org

13 This was also emphasised in the April 2008 India-Africa Forum Summit in Delhi. An informative presentation and discussion of the Summit and its outcomes can be found in S. Naidu & H. Herman, “India in Africa. No

“Sleeping walking” in Africa”, Global Dialogue. An international affairs review, vol. 13, 2008, No2 (August) (available from www.igd.org.za).

Navigating Complexity. A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

Navigating Complexity. A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

Navigating Complexity

A Review of Training for Peace in Africa

Commissioned by Norad, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Embassy of Norway in Pretoria

Table of Contents

Executive Summary

Acronyms and Abbreviations

1: Introduction

2: TfP – an overview

3: Findings: Achievements, results and impacts