The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report from 1987, called Our Common Future, but commonly known as the Brundtland Report (France 1997), launched what has become the most used definition of the term sustainable development.
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987).
With this, the Brundtland Report demonstrated a “strong people-centred ethical stance, concentrating on the satisfaction of human needs, rather than, for example, on protection of the environment in general” (France 1997:12). Therefore, the concept has been contested, some “radical critics of the Brundtland Report claim that the whole idea of sustainable development is a rhetorical ploy which conceals a strategy for sustaining consumption rather than addressing the causes of the ecological crisis” (Hajer 1995:12). Indeed, the Brundtland definition is still under debate, as the two terms ‘sustainable’ and ‘development’ have several different meanings (environmental, ecological, economic, social and political factors [France 1997]), and merged, the concept is thereby open for different perceptions and interpretations.
The concept of sustainability originally became connected to the term development during the development planning after the Second World War (Adams 2009). Its adoption by the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 marked in many ways the turning point in international environmental politics (Hajer 1995). The connection between development and environment was a hot topic in the 1970s and early 80s, raising concerns over issues such as global warming and deforestation. Sustainability then became a keystone in the development discourse and would dominate the development paradigm of the 1990s up until today (Adams 2009). The seemingly uncontroversial, but highly contested 27 principles for the achievement of sustainable development in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environmental Development, echoed Brundtland’s mantra by stating that “human beings are at the centre of concerns for
27 sustainable development” (France 1997:12). Thus, it is important to notice that the hegemonic idea of sustainable development is not an outcome of a united agreement between different actors, but rather a struggle, which produces several story lines and narratives within the environmental discourse (Hajer 1995).
2.3.1 Sustainable Tourism
The publishing of the Brundtland Report in 1987 also initiated increasing concern over the growing negative impacts of tourism (Croall 1995 in France 1997). The Rio Conference in 1992 thereafter led to a “wider dissemination of the concept of sustainable tourism development” (France 1997:11, own emphasis). Based on the principles and recommendations presented in the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development and Agenda 21, a World Conference on Sustainable Tourism was held in Lanzarote in 1995 (France 1997). The conference developed 18 principles and objectives, a charter for sustainable tourism. Central issues were that tourism development should be ecologically bearable, economically viable; and ethically and socially equitable for local communities.
Furthermore, the charter focused on participation of all actors, conservation of natural and cultural heritage and integration into local economic development. Awareness of sustainable tourism and codes of conduct for actors was also emphasised (France 1997). Sustainable tourism is therefore a holistic concept, related to its widespread content as well as its numerous stakeholders. Over the years, various types of sustainable tourism have emerged, reflecting the different emphasis given to environmental, economic and cultural aspects.
Table 3 is a summary of the definitions of these sustainable tourism terms.
Table 3: Definitions of sustainable tourism terms
Term Definition Emphasis
Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism means achieving a particular combination of numbers and types of visitors, the cumulative effect of whose activities at a given destination, together with the actions of the servicing businesses, can continue into the
foreseeable future without damaging the quality of the environment on which the activities are based
The responsible management of resources for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations
28 Alternative Tourism Alternative tourism aims to put as much
distance as possible between itself and mass tourism
Ethical Tourism Ethical tourism is a concept that goes beyond the three principles of
sustainability. It recognizes that tourists and tourism providers must take some
Ecotourism Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present)
3. Is profitable and can sustain itself
Cultural/Heritage Tourism
Tourism that respects natural and built environments, the heritage of people and place
Respect for the local natural environment and local heritage Pro-poor Tourism Pro-poor tourism is not a specific tourism
product; it is an approach to tourism development and management which ensures that local poor people are able to secure economic benefits from tourism in a fair and sustainable manner better holiday experiences for guests and good business opportunities to enjoy better quality of life through increased
Source: Adapted from Frey & George (2008)
29 Ecotourism is probably the most commonly used term by the general public for any type of sustainable tourism, even if the destination is not relatively undisturbed and the focus is not necessarily on nature and wildlife. Although the tourism industry did not originate the concept of sustainable-, or ecotourism, it was quick to adopt, popularize and mainstream it - and water it down (Honey 1999). This tapping of the public’s ‘green’ sentiments is useful for the tourism industry as a “marketing tool to attract the growing number of environmentally and socially conscious travellers” (Honey 1999:19). According to Honey (1999:47),
“[a]lthough tourism executives recognize that the health, sustainability, and profitability of their industry depends in large part on protecting the environment, sophisticated marketing techniques often allow the travel industry to appear ‘green’ without making fundamental or costly reforms”. This so-called ‘greenwashing’, “exaggerated half-truths”, mislead travellers (Frommer 1994 in Honey 1999:49). Even though there has been a general rise in awareness over environmental issues in the last few decades, ecotourism is more mainstream than before, and many travellers have begun “opting for comfort over conservation” (Honey 1999:52). Therefore, one should not put all the responsibility on the tourist industry; after all, unless they are regulated to follow sustainable tourism principles, it is not surprising that they do not sell a product that its consumers have little interest in.