Since statistics on corruption are difficult to obtain, researching corruption and its
consequences can be a challenging task. For this reason, research on corruption is often dependant on measuring peoples’ perceptions of corruption (Graycar & Prenzler, 2013). Though measuring perceptions is not part of this research, the research still relies on a qualitative approach to
comparing state practices, which will ultimately result in a subjective methodology. However, by discussing the methodology in this section, it is possible to specify the processes used to produce
‘valid’ knowledge (Devetak, 2012)
6.1 Philosophical Assumptions
To understand the impact a subjectivist approach has on this research, it is worth noting the philosophical assumptions. This is because differing assumptions are often contradictory to each other within International Relations (Jackson & Sørensen, 2016). The ontological assumptions refer to “the assumptions we make about what exists” and whether “an ‘objective’ world exists outside human experience or only a ‘subjective’ world constructed by human experience” (Baylis et al., 2014, p. 540; Jackson & Sørensen, 2016, p. 311). The epistemological assumptions refer to “the assumptions we make about how we can know something” or in other words “in what way can we obtain knowledge about the world?” (Baylis et al., 2014, p. 532; Jackson & Sørensen, 2016, p. 244).
The ontological and epistemological assumptions connected to the Liberal school of thought is that of a positivist and objective reality, which can be tested by experiments and verification of
hypotheses (Lincoln, Lynham, & Cuba, 2011). Whilst this assumption is relevant for the
examination of asset recovery, this study focuses more on the prevention of corruption and money laundering. Since preventative measures ultimately rely on events which have never occurred, the ontological and epistemological assumptions in this will differ. As Yvonna S. Lincoln and her colleagues (2011) explain, the ontological approach of critical theory (Marxism) is a historical realism which is a “virtual reality shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, and gender values: crystalised over time” (p.98). By subscribing to this understanding, Critical Theorists believe in a subjective epistemology and a dialetical methodology, which is “a method of
examining and discussing opposing ideas in order to find the truth” ("dialectic," n.d.). By adopting this understanding, this research takes an ontological assumption that “[h]uman nature operates in a world that is based on a struggle for power” and an epistemological assumption that “[r]esearch is driven by the study of social structures, freedom and oppression, and power and control” (Lincoln et al., 2011, pp.102-103).
6.2 Data
As explained by Uwe Flick (2014), “researchers do not produce data, but instead use existing data for the analysis” (p.44). The data used in this research will be sourced from secondary sources and are an amalgamation of newspaper articles, journal articles, books and websites. This form of research will draw on the secondary sources as resources to investigate corruption and money laundering through the context of the research questions.
The data will be presented through the form of case studies, whereby each country will have a general introduction before a deeper presentation of findings. Case studies are a valuable form of research in the social sciences. The method allows researchers “(a) to define research topics broadly and not narrowly, (b) to cover contextual or complex multivariate conditions and not just isolated variables, and (c) to rely on multiple and not singular sources of evidence” (Yin, 2003, p. xi). Yin (2003) explains that case studies can be based on singular or multiple cases and will be either
“exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory (causal)” (p. 5). The premise of the research in this study is part descriptive, part explanatory - whereby a description of the historical context of corruption in each country will be given, as well as an examination of the social structures which impact money-laundering.
6.3 Analysis
Qualitative analysis is seen as being both a “science and an art”, “structured but flexible”
and a process of “calculated chaos” (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2011, p. 205). This is because whilst it “refers to developing evidence-based interpretations of data”, it also “refers to the interpretive nature of analysis” (Hennink et al., 2011, p. 205). However, this research attempts to reduce the risk of this occurring by performing a comparative analysis. Alan Bryman (2014) explains the validity of such an analysis:
when individuals or teams set out to examine particular issues or phenomena in two or more countries with the express intention of comparing their manifestations in different socio-cultural settings (institutions, customs, traditions, value systems, life styles, language, thought patterns), using the same research instruments either to carry secondary analysis of national data or to conduct new empirical work. The aim may be to seek explanations for similarities and differences or to gain a greater awareness and a deeper understanding of social reality in different national contexts. (p.72)
In context to this research, the phenomena being examined is corruption and money-laundering. By using theories connected to Marxism/Critical Theory and International
Regimes/Laws, the theoretical framework will create a structure to the analysis. The analysis can
then examine the different forces impacting upon domestic and international asset recovery efforts among each of the four countries.
By using a comparative analysis in such a way, I will be using analytic induction - meaning that the observations made on these specific cases, will result in inferences based on generalisations (Brymann, 2012). Though the analysis does not aim to establish causality between these inferences, it is possible these inferences will establish commonalities between the four case studies.
6.4 Discussion
Reflecting on the case studies, I will divide the discussion into three separate sections. These are:
Policy developments – which include the “demonstrated and credible intent of political actors, civil servants and organs of the state to combat corruption and recover and return stolen assets” (Tracking Anti-Corruption and Asset Recovery Commitments: A Progress Report and Recommendations for Action, 2015). The mechanism connected to these policies need to be understood from both input (making) and output (implementing) processes.
Legislative developments – which includes legislation proposed by regimes and adopted by governments in order to tackle corruption, tax evasion and money laundering.
Institutional developments – which include the changes made to “recover the proceeds of corruption” (Tracking Anti-Corruption and Asset Recovery Commitments: A Progress Report and Recommendations for Action, 2015).
6.5 Challenges and Limitations
Though thus-far there has been an explicit statement about the methodology I will use in this research, there are also certain issues which need consideration.
6.5.1 Subjectivity
Though the nature of this research is subjective in its ontological assumptions, it must be noted that because of the dependency on secondary data sources, the research may “rely too much on the researcher’s often unsystematic views about what is significant and important” (Brymann, 2012, p. 405). This is often the nature of qualitative research meaning that my research and discussion might be difficult to test and replicate.
6.5.2 Triangulation
Triangulation is a model for research which uses “multiple data-gathering techniques (usually three) to investigate the same phenomenon” (Berg & Lune, 2012, p. 6). By using this technique, there is a means to confirm measures and findings in the collated data. The research in this study relies on Case Study analysis, and whilst this is a valid research tool, there are risks the
analysis will miss certain factors. The original intent of this study was to avoid this issue by conducting primary research to triangulate my desk-based findings. However, attempts at contacting the British, Nigerian, Russian and Chinese authorities yielded little response. One response was received by the British Home Office, please see appendix for details.
6.5.3 Ethical Considerations
When conducting qualitative research, researchers must be aware of ethical considerations such as “invasion of privacy”, “lack of informed consent”, “harm to participants”, and “deception”.
(Brymann, 2012, pp. 135-143). Though the research in this study is desk-based and does not involve direct contact with the studied subjects, there are other ethical considerations worth reflecting on. When sourcing data one should be aware of the authenticity and credibility of the sources as well the representativeness and meaning of the documents which are examined.