1. Introduction
1.1. Development of Hydropower and Global Issues
CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction
1.1. Development of Hydropower and Global Issues
On a global scale, it is possible to identify emerging stresses over river ecosystems. The freshwaters are primary resources available for human use. The pressure on the hydrological cycles is emerging, and the river flows are in transition. While quality and quantity parameters are still the main criteria for human consumption of water, the river ecosystems and the integrity of its process became widely acknowledged in the last decade. More specifically, the physical and morphological qualities of resources are essential for healthy rivers.
Natural flow regimes are under stress with water allocation or alteration activities such as hydropower plants, dams, or reservoirs. The hydrological cycle is under the pressure of human activities, and they are in transition. The estimated consequences are “affected biodiversity, food, and health security and ecological functioning, such as the provision of habitats for fish recruitment, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation, undermining the
Old Halfeti submerged under Birecik dam lake, Southeastern Anatolia, 2016, Own Work
2 resilience of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.” (Rockström et al., 2009) Water management methods are the main driver of the transformation across river basins. The sediments are held in more extended periods, and the river discharges are altered. 30% of global river sediments are estimated not to reach the oceans (Vörösmarty et al., 2004). Among the hydraulic manipulations, the most affecting are irrigation activities, groundwater use, large dams, channel dredging, and wetland drainage.
As the oldest and cheapest clean energy technology, hydropower is still heading the global renewable energy trends. Approximately 15.9% of the global energy produced today comes from hydropower, with 1308 GW of installed capacity worldwide (International Hydropower Association (IHA), 2020). The global growth rates for hydropower development have consistently been between 2.5% to 3% per year for nearly two decades (IHA, 2019). The development of hydropower will continue as long as the projects are economically efficient (e.g., high energy efficiency, long life span, regional development) with its potential social benefits (e.g., livelihoods, flood protection, other uses of water) and low environmental impact (e.g., low greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants) compared to other energy production systems (I. Yuksel, 2007).
Hydropower technology is in many ways beneficial compared to other energy resources in terms of environment and sustainability. Significantly low emissions from the life-cycle of projects in particular motivate the choice for hydropower. In recent years, hydropower development has been put on the agenda for climate change mitigation strategies. Carbon markets have been benefiting hydropower projects and become one of the international development policies towards a “cleaner energy” transition (IPCC, 2011). Particularly in developing countries such as China, India, Brazil and Mexico international carbon markets provide capital through the Clean Development Mechanism and many companies prefer to get carbon credits by investing in hydropower. This strategy as a market based policy instrument provides investment capital in order to cover developing countries’ needs. UNESCO (2020) acknowledges that hydropower will continue to play a role in climate change mitigation. In brief, hydropower can be promoted as one of the solutions to climate change and intrinsically the number of the projects expected to increase. As much as its benefits are promoted, there has been a global debate over its consequences and challenges in the local level. As the numbers of projects increased, the impacts on the local environment and communities started to become more visible. Hydropower projects interfere with common natural resources, which is in interest of various actors and purposes. The management of rivers have become even more complex
3 with the growing involvement of the energy sector, particularly regarding its ecological-social impacts and the distribution of its benefits and costs.
Hydropower projects when built as multi-purpose dams with a reservoir, can serve other beneficial purposes such as irrigation, drinking water, flood and drought control in addition to energy production (IPCC, 2011, p. 8). However, the utilization of this vital natural resource can still have severe impacts and may interfere with the state of the freshwater resources. The common damages caused by the large dams on the environment can be physical, chemical and geomorphological. In addition, it can be changes in biological productivity or alterations of the fauna (World Commission on Dams, 2000, p. 74). In addition, the reallocation of rivers may also result in social impacts such that locals are forced to relocate and change their livelihoods.
The value and meaning of these natural resources can vary in different communities, such as some may have spiritual or cultural connection to nature (Goodland, 2010). Oppositions of activist groups and associations of victims that are affected by the large-scale projects has become widespread on a global scale (World Commission on Dams, 2000, p. 19). The World Bank as the biggest financial provider of the large dams responded to public opposition by withdrawing its finance support from particular projects that attracted great concerns (ibid). In recent years, there is a shift towards more small-scale hydropower (<10 MW) or towards run-of-river systems. These types are considered having less significant environmental and social impacts (Konak & Sungu-Eryilmaz, 2015). They only use the natural flow of the river (I.
Yuksel, 2007). However, according to the IPCC (2011) report, the classification of hydropower plants differ in countries and the projects are highly site specific. As an example, when small-scale projects, which tend to be environmentally friendly, are built in large numbers along one river basin, and they may actually cause greater harm than one large dam (IPCC, 2011, p. 450).
In overall, globally the development of hydropower and whether they actually contribute to sustainable development or generating local problems, is highly contextual and case dependent.
In sum, the global climate change policies will continue to pressure the energy transition towards renewable resources. The energy researchers predict that following decades the interest is more on the wind and solar power as the costs are decreasing. However, the technical constraints of these technologies points out the importance of hydropower once again. In addition, two decades later after WCD report about large dams, the technical experts of the energy sector and other international financing institutions (e.g. World Bank, IFC) have developed guidelines in order to minimize the impacts or improve the sustainability of the projects, including their cumulative effects. These guidelines are not legally binding.
4 Nevertheless, the challenges of hydropower will remain in conflict as the context in each country varies. In addition, within the countries the stand points can differentiate as the interest over river resources also can be multiple and socially complex.