Jens B. Grøgaard
Person Profil Analyse (PPA)
Vurdering av noen aspekter ved
PPAs validitet og reliabilitet
Jens B. Grøgaard
Person Profil Analyse (PPA) Vurdering av noen aspekter ved PPAs validitet og reliabilitet
Fafo-notat 1998:15
© Forskningsstiftelsen Fafo 1998 ISSN 0804-5135
Innhold
Forord ... 5
1 Teoretisk modell ... 7
Aktiv – passiv respons...7
Fire grunnformer – DISC ...8
En oppfatning som er strukturert av to kjennetegn ved omgivelsene? ...9
Andre muligheter ...10
Selvadministrert intervju...11
Maske, press og selvbilde ...11
2 Litt om validitet og reliabilitet ... 13
Trespråksmodellen...13
Fire former for validitet?...14
Vi nøyer oss med en tredeling …...15
Prediksjonsvaliditet – den svakeste formen...15
Noe sterkere – kriterievaliditet ...15
Konstruksjons- eller begrepsvaliditet – den store utfordringen ...16
Reliabilitet – stabilitet og ekvivalens ...16
3 Beskrivelse av instrumentene... 18
Grunnskjemaet ...18
Ipsativ skala...20
Observatørskjemaet – en normativ skala ...20
Hva sier data om hvordan de to skalaene fungerer?...22
Korrelasjonsmatrisen ...242
Hvilke adjektiver opptrer hyppigst? ...25
Sammenligning av det usammenlignbare? ...26
Et eksempel fra sosiologien ...27
Avsluttende vurdering ...28
4 Noen kjennetegn ved utvalget av respondenter... 29
Menn med høy utdanning – i sin beste alder...29
Omgivelser og posisjoner ...29
5 Predikerer ego alters vurdering av ego? ... 31
Stabilitet i egenvurderingen ...31
Er observatørene enige seg i mellom – ekvivalens i testen? ...33
Er observatørene enige med respondenten? ...34
6 Faktoriseringer ... 35
Faktoranalyse på de to egenrapporteringene gir to dimensjoner...36
Observatørvurderingen gir tre dimensjoner ...37
En faktoranalyse med yrkesposisjon som det femte hjulet på vogna ...39
7 Noen regresjonsanalyser... 40
Konklusjon ...42
8 Avsluttende vurdering ... 43
Litteratur/referanser... 45
Appendiks 1 Ansats til vurdering av begreps/konstruksjonsvaliditet ... 47
Appendiks 2 Oversiktstabell... 50
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1 Teoretisk modell
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Aktiv – passiv respons
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Bl.a. Irvine (1988) og (1989), Irvine m.fl. (1991), Brorson (1993), Kaplan m.fl., Cripps m.fl. (1988), Thomas Int. (1993).
I Beyond Freedom and Dignity uttrykker Skinner (1971) seg slik: «The trouble was that the en- vironment acts in an inconspicuous way: it does not push or pull (…) (it) not only prods or lashes, it selects« (ibid: 22,23).
Dermed har man for så vidt overskredet den todelingen (dikotomien) som forestillingen om imitas- jon og opposisjon bygger på. Horney (1945) snakker om å komme i møte (moving towards), sette seg opp mot (moving against) og bevege seg bort fra (moving away from). Analogien i sosiologi og sta- tsvitenskap er antagelig Hirschmans (1970) triade: Exit, voice, and loyality: responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states.
Fire grunnformer – DISC
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Vi tenker for eksempel på Albert Banduras’ (1977) forestilling om høy egenvurdert kapasitet eller store mestringsforventninger (high perceived self-efficacy).
En bølle er som kjent en person som opptrer aggressivt uten at vedkommende demonstrerer mot.
Takk til Anders Reichborn for dette poenget.
En oppfatning som er strukturert av to kjennetegn ved omgivelsene?
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Det er noen fellestrekk ved denne tankegangen og Bourdieus forestillinger om kulturelt habitus, selv om det innholdsmessige er svært forskjellig. Begge forestillinger er kognitivt forankret, og begge utvikler teorier om potensiell handling (disposisjoner). Jonathan Turner presenterer et interessant forsøk på å klassifisere (og integrere) et knippe teorier om behovs-/handlingsdisposisjoner i sin artik- kel Towards a sociological theory of motivation fra 1987. Dette forslaget er også diskutert i Grøgaard (1995/1997: 744–748).
Figur 1 Grunnmodellen: Individenes respons på ulike omgivelser i arbeidslivets posisjonshierarki.
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2 Litt om validitet og reliabilitet
Trespråksmodellen
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Robinson (1962/1974: 8-9), norsk utgave - Økonomisk filosofi.
Lakatos (1970: 130).
Vitenskapteoretikeren Andrew Sayer argumenterer for at eksponentene for ulike syn på forholdet mellom teori og observasjon ledes inn i det endelige (ultimate) ordskifte – og det er for så vidt et viktig poeng at skeptikeren alltid får det siste ordet. Sayer (1984: 145-157).
Fire former for validitet?
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Judd og Kenny henviser til begrepsbruken hos Cook og Campbell (1979), men presenterer for så vidt sin selvstendige tolkning av hva disse fire formene for validitet betyr.
Robert Merton (1975) formulerte et program for empirisk forskning, som krevde at enhver empirisk undersøkelse ble designet slik at ulike formodninger og teorier skulle møtes på en felles arena til gjensidig berikelse og kontrovers. Deretter var det empirikerens plikt å ta stilling.
Vi nøyer oss med en tredeling …
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Prediksjonsvaliditet – den svakeste formen
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Noe sterkere – kriterievaliditet
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Se for eksempel Hellevik (1977/1980).
Samtidig er det sider ved det praktiske liv hvor vurdering av sannhet og nytte hviler på at man predikerer riktig – der det primære sannhetskriteriet er «se det virker!» (praktisk adekvans). Når rør- leggeren har reparert røret som sprang lekk, vil det herske liten tvil om at handlingen både var «sann»
og «nyttig» – den fremstod som umiddelbart evident. Når man diskuterer abstrakte størrelser som intelligens, personlighet, handlingsdisposisjoner og lignende, er det få utsagn som tilhører klassen av umiddelbart sanne og nyttige (evidente) utsagn. Relevans, indikatorvalg osv. må begrunnes.
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Konstruksjons- eller begrepsvaliditet – den store utfordringen
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Generelt legges det stor vekt på respondentens intuitive, følelsesmessige tilknytning til språket.
Spørreskjemaet skal være på morsmålet – et språk respondenten har vokst opp med fra tidlige barneår. Tidsavgrensningen under utfyllingen av PPA, kan dermed sies å forsterke respondentens intuitive forståelse av et begreps betydning og vedkommendes følelsesmessige (versus rasjonelle) forhold til det å karakterisere seg selv. Takk til Anders Reichborn for denne påpekningen.
Tabell 1 Oversikt over adjektivenes tilknytning til DISC-dimensjonene basert på egenvurdering ved hjelp av PPA (person profil analyse) og observatørvurdering ved hjelp av observatørskjema
D Dominans
I Innflytelse
S Stabilitet
C Føyelig Symmetrisk på skala:
Sta Tillitsvekkende Snill Ydmyk
Dristig Sjarmerende Imøtekommende Respektfull
Konkurranseglad Munter Likevektig Korrekt
Ubøyelig Lekende Hensynsfull Forsiktig
Selvsikker Omgjengelig Tålmodig Behagelig
Eventyrlysten Pratsom Måteholden Fredelig
Besluttsom Selskapets midtpunkt Behersket Trofast
Vågal Overbevisende Tilfreds (7 symmetrier)
Påståelig Optimistisk Bløthjertet
Iherdig Livsglad Generøs
Karaktersterk Selskapelig Velvillig/medgjørlig
Banebrytende Kameratslig Overbærende
Argumenterende Populær Hjelpsom
Sikker (13 symmetrier) (13 symmetrier)
Energisk Likefrem Rastløs (17 symmetrier) Bare L (distansere):
Orginal Trivelig/jovial Blid Lett å lede
Viljesterk Glad Underdaning Harmonisk
Modig Hjertelig Sympatisk Omstendelig
Humørfylt Dannet Nonchalant Engstelig
(4 distansert) Livlig Fornøyd Konvensjonell
Godtroende (L fra S) Behersket Bekymret
(6 distansert) (6 distansert) Tolerant
Resignert Kultivert Bare M (fremheve):
(9 distansert)
Tapper Overtalende Lojal Fordomsfri
Pågående Inspirerende Lydig Stillfarende
Bestemt Tillitsfull Godlynt Mottakelig
(3 fremhevet) Beundringsverdig Villig Disiplinert
(4 fremhevet) Vennlig Ærbødig
Godtroende Smidig
(6 fremhevet) Nøyaktig
Diplomatisk (M fra I)
Ord som ikke gir poeng på skalaen:
(8 fremhevet)
Ivrig (ingen poeng)
Diplomatisk (M på C) Godtroende (L på I) Variasjonsbredde:
M: 17+3 = +20 13+4 = +17 13+6 = +19 8+7 =+15
L: -17+(-4)= -21 -13+(-6) = -19 -13+(-6) = -19 -9 – 7 = -16
Ipsativ skala
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Hensikten med å lage et eget skjema til observatørene, var å gi dem muligheten til å karakterisere sin kollega på et mest mulig fritt grunnlag.
Intersubjektivitetens problem er et sentralt tema i vitenskapsteori. Et svar kalles (radikal) kon- vensjonalisme: Mennesker «forhandler» seg frem til en felles forståelse, eller noen har makt til å sette sin forståelse igjennom på bekostning av alle andre – der og da. Underforstått – det er langt fra sik- kert at dette skaper felles forståelse. En innvending mot denne formen for relativisme er dels at den bygger på et svakt begrep om anvendelse (praksis, erfaring), dels at den «glemmer» at det finnes noe utenfor oss som har en struktur. Anomalien – at noe utenfor oss overrumpler oss – brukes gjerne som argument for at omgivelsene også har en form som ikke lar seg redusere til våre fore- stillinger om dem – per dato. Dermed fremstår forutsigbarhet (at noe er adekvat i praksis – se det virker!) som intersubjektivitetens basis. Predikerbarhet blir viktigere enn vi først kunne få inntrykk av.
Sayer (1984: 66) sier at praktisk adekvat kunnskap må generere forventninger om verden utenfor oss og om virkningene av våre handlinger, som faktisk realiseres. I tillegg, må den – som konvensjonalis- tene har insistert på – la seg uttrykke i et gitt system av lingvistiske former, for å fremstå som inter- subjektivt begripelig og akseptabel.
Hva sier data om hvordan de to skalaene fungerer?
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Tabell 2 Gjennomsnitt, standardavvik og variasjonsbredde hos respondenter og observatører langs DISC-profilens enkelte komponenter. Beregnede gjennomsnitt av to henholdsvis tre observasjoner på gjennomsnitt og standard- avvik er gjengitt i tabellen.
Dimensjon Gjennomsnitt Standardavvik Variasjonsbredde Observasjoner Kommentar Dominans
Maske:
Respondent 5,8 3,2 0 – 18 409, 90 Ganske likt
Observatør 7,2 3,3 0 – 17 91,84,49
Press:
Respondent 6,5 3,3 0 – 17 Likt
Observatør 6,5 3,5 0 – 18
Selvbilde:
Respondent - 0,5 5,9 -16 – 18 Ganske likt
Observatør 0,8 6,0 -18 – 15
Innflytelse Maske:
Respondent 5,2 2,4 0 – 13 409, 90 Observatørenes
Observatør 8,6 3,6 0 – 17 91,84,49 frihet slår ut
Press:
Respondent 4,1 2,6 0 – 12 Ganske likt
Observatør 2,0 2,6 0 – 12
Selvbilde:
Respondent 1,1 4,4 -10 – 12 Ganske ulikt
Observatør 6,4 5,5 -10 – 17
Stabilitet Maske:
Respondent 5,5 2,8 0 – 13 409, 90 Ulikt
Observatør 10,0 3,7 1 – 18 91,84,49
Press:
Respondent 4,2 2,0 0 – 10 Ganske likt
Observatør 3,1 2,2 0 – 11
Selvbilde:
Respondent 1,1 4,1 -10 – 12 Ulikt
Observatør 7,0 5,0 -10 – 16
Føyelighet Maske:
Respondent 5,2 2,0 0 – 10 409, 90 Litt
Observatør 4,6 3,0 0 – 12 91,84,49 forskjellig
Press:
Respondent 5,2 2,5 0 – 12 Ganske likt
Observatør 4,4 2,6 0 – 12
Selvbilde:
Respondent - 1,7 4,0 -10 – 8 Litt
Observatør 2,0 4,8 -10 – 12 forskjellig
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Tabell 3 Korrelasjoner mellom skårene på DISC blant henholdsvis 409 egenvurderinger og 91 observatørvurder- inger. Pearsons r.
Dominans Innflytelse Stabilitet Føyelighet
Observatøren:
Dominans 1,0 0,08 -0,43** -0,47**
Innflytelse 1,0 0,42** 0,06
Stabilitet 1,0 0,70**
Egenvurdering:
Dominans 1,0 -0,02 -0,73** -0,56**
Innflytelse 1,0 -0,38** -0,58**
Stabilitet 1,0 0,44**
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Den siste grunnen kan naturligvis være at undertegnede tilhører en samfunnsfaglig disiplin som alltid sammenligner det usammenlignbare – nemlig sosiologien. Dette må naturligvis forstås som en bekjennelse og ikke som et argument.
4 Noen kjennetegn ved utvalget av respondenter
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