MASTER'S THESIS

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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MASTER'S THESIS

Study programme/specialisation:

Spring semester, 2020 Confidential Industrial Asset Management

Technical and Operational Integrity

Author:

(signature of author)

Mohammadreza Mashayekh

Programme coordinator: Professor Jayantha Prasanna Liyanage Supervisor: Professor Jayantha Prasanna Liyanage

External Supervisor: Per Hassel Sørensen Title of master's thesis:

Using Lifecycle Analysis (LCA) Towards Environmental and Human Health Footprints of Electrically Assisted Velomobile, PODBIKE

Credits: 30 Keywords:

Number of pages: …87…

+ supplemental material/other: …0…

Stavanger, June 15, 2020 date/year Life Cycle Assessment

Life Cycle Analysis Velomobile

Sustainability

Environmental impact Transportation

Title page for master's thesis Faculty of Science and Technology

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In fulfilment of the master’s degree at Faculty of Science and Technology

Using Lifecycle Analysis (LCA) Towards Environmental and Human Health Footprints of Electrically Assisted Velomobile, PODBIKE

Mohammadreza Mashayekh

Faculty of Science and Technology University of Stavanger

June 2020

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I

Acknowledgement

This thesis would not have been possible to be accomplished without the help of several knowledgeable and resourceful people, and I wish to take this opportunity to reflect my sincerest appreciation to all the people whose assistance was a milestone in the completion of this study.

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Jayantha Prasanna Liyanage whose supportive advice and guidance during this period of time enhanced my scientific abilities and improved my academic skills.

I am very thankful to my ever-supportive advisor, Per Hassel Sørensen, who has always been helping me patiently, and whose brilliant knowledge and experience kept me on the right track with respect to the detailed technical aspects of the thesis study.

I am very grateful to the Podbike AS team for offering this practical, productive and challenging thesis topic, and for the flexibility they have shown towards me over this period of time.

I would like to thank the experts, Ottar Kvindesland, Azadeh Seif Askari, Mohammad Bakhshandeh who supported this thesis as the external readers and participated passionately.

Their contributions have been precious and greatly appreciated as without them this research could not be as thorough.

Last but not least, special thanks to my family, in particular my mother, Farideh Mahmoudi whose supports have always been encouraging me to move forward despite miles of distance between us.

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Abstract

The transportation sector is responsible for the second largest ratio of the greenhouse gas emissions that can cause severe effects on human health and the environment. On the other hand, this sector is important by providing human beings with access to education, health care, employment opportunities, etc. and also leads to economic growth. As a result, sustainability is vital for this sector. Many initiatives have been introduced to lead to sustainability for this sector such as electric cars, e-scooters, car-sharing business models, etc. Recent studies have proved that among the current available means of urban transportation, electric cars, conventional bicycles and electric bicycles have the lowest level of environmental and human health impacts.

However, the damages associated with the production phase, and energy consumption during the use phase of the electric cars are still too high. Also, lack of safety and comfort of the bicycles can decrease their uptake among the public. Hence, a state-of-the-art concept of velomobile is developed to bridge the gap between the cars and bicycles.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the undesirable environmental and human health impacts caused by the use of the velomobile. Therefore, in this research, a systematic, comprehensive, and scientific approach is proposed in order to measure and document the sustainability of the velomobile with respect to the environmental and human health footprints, this approach is called Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) or Cradle-to-Grave Analysis. Meanwhile, this methodology can enable the stakeholders of the asset to identify the points with the highest contribution to the environmental and human health damages, and accordingly improve the environmental and human health footprints performance of the velomobile. Also, the study can provide a practical application of the LCA study for four-wheeled pedelecs with electric assist.

Based on the application of the study, the EndPoint LCA was selected to be implemented. The LCA framework is developed for the asset in compliance with two main international standards, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044.

The results and analysis have shown that if the velomobile is ridden using renewable energy, the environmental and human health impacts of the vehicle can be half, and the damages can be mainly attributable to the manufacturing phase of the product, otherwise, the impacts can mainly come from the use phase of the velomobile. Also, the results have demonstrated that the electrical system and rolling chassis assemblies are primarily accountable for the impacts caused during the production phase. Moreover, aluminium components, batteries, electric motors and electronics for control units have the highest environmental and human health impacts potential. In the meantime, the maintenance of the product during the lifetime of the velomobile can lead to the second largest proportion of the damages due to the battery replacement times over the lifetime of the vehicle.

The study concluded that recycling development, technical improvements of the battery packs, aluminium components and electric motors, involvement of the stakeholders in the improvement processes, and continuous follow-up on the environmental and human health footprints performance improvement of the product using the developed mind map can bring about a significant reduction of the impacts.

Key Words: Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Analysis, Velomobile, Sustainability, Environmental impact, Transportation.

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List of Figures

Figure 1, Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions, by Sector ... 2

Figure 2, Number of Cyclist Fatalities in EU, 2007-2016 ... 3

Figure 3, Breakdown of the Transportation Induced GHG Emissions in the EU ... 10

Figure 4, Share of Premature Deaths Attributed to Air Pollution Globally ... 11

Figure 5, Number of European Residents Exposed to High Level of Noise Pollution Caused by the Transportation Modes ... 12

Figure 6, Norwegian Postman Driving the Paxter Product ... 13

Figure 7, An EV Is Being Charged by the ZAPTEC Charger in UiS Campus, Stavanger, Norway ... 14

Figure 8, Riding E-scooters in Oslo, Norway ... 15

Figure 9, Autonomous Bus Project Testing in Forus, Stavanger, Norway ... 15

Figure 10, Short Distance Emissions from Current Available Means of Transportation ... 17

Figure 11, An Ordinary Resident Riding an E-bike in England ... 18

Figure 12, The Life Cycle Concept ... 20

Figure 13, The MidPoint & EndPoint Impact Category Indicators, and Their Relationship ... 22

Figure 14, Riding a Podbike Velomobile in Norway ... 24

Figure 15, The Space-Efficient Parking Concept of the Podbike Velomobile ... 25

Figure 16, Main Concept of the IDEF Diagram ... 26

Figure 17, IDEF Diagram of the Podbike AS's Operation ... 27

Figure 18, LCA Framework ... 30

Figure 19, The LCA Stages of the Podbike Velomobile & its System Boundaries ... 32

Figure 20, LCIA Framework ... 34

Figure 21, Dashboard Template of the Environmental and Human Health Footprints Performance of the Assets ... 36

Figure 22, Single Score Process Tree of Podbike Velomobile's Life Cycle with the Functional Unit Defined in Norway ... 46

Figure 23, Single Score Process Tree of Podbike Velomobile's Life Cycle with the Functional Unit Defined in Norway, the Contributions Displayed in Percentage ... 48

Figure 24, Environmental and Human Health Damages Assessment Bar Chart of the Podbike Velomobile's Lifecycle, with the Functional Unit Defined in Norway ... 49

Figure 25, Single Score Process Tree of Podbike Velomobile's Life Cycle with the Functional Unit Defined in Germany ... 51

Figure 26, Single Score Process Tree of Podbike Velomobile's Life Cycle with the Functional Unit Defined in Germany, the Contributions Displayed in Percentage ... 53

Figure 27, Environmental and Human Health Damages Assessment Bar Chart of the Podbike Velomobile's Lifecycle, with the Functional Unit Defined in Germany ... 54

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Figure 28, Comparative Damage Assessment for the Two Selected Regions of Operation .... 55 Figure 29, Environmental and Human Health Footprints Performance Improvement Assessment Mind Map ... 60

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VII

List of Tables

Table 1, The Selected Impact Categories of the ReCiPe 2016 EndPoint (H) LCIA Method .. 35

Table 2, Inventory Inputs for the Complete Body Parts Assembly ... 41

Table 3, Inventory Inputs for the Rolling Chassis Complete Assembly ... 42

Table 4, Inventory Inputs for the Electrical System Assembly ... 43

Table 5, Inventory Inputs for the Canopy & Hinge System Assembly ... 44

Table 6, Inventory Inputs for the Brake System Assembly ... 45

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Terms and Definitions

ABS: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene APP: Application

BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle BOM: Bill of Material

cm²: Square Centimetre E-bike: Electric Bicycle E-scooter: Electric Scooter

EAB: Electrically Assisted Bicycle EAV: Electrically Assisted Velomobile EPDM: Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer ERP: Enterprise Resource Planning

EV: Electric Vehicle

EVSE: Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment GHG: Greenhouse Gas

HDPE: High-Density Polyethylene

IDEF: Integration Definition for Function Modelling ISO: The International Organization for Standardization IT: Information Technology

kg: Kilogram km: Kilometre kW: Kilowatt

LCA: Life Cycle Assessment/Life Cycle Analysis LCI: Life Cycle Inventory

LCIA: Life Cycle Impact Assessment NBR: Nitrile Butadiene Rubber PC: Polycarbonate

PCBA: Printed Circuit Board Assembly pcs: Pieces

Pedelec: Pedal-Electric or a cycle with electric motor assist PETG: Polyethylene Terephthalate Granule

PHEV: Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle PMMA: Polymethyl Methacrylate PO: Purchase Order

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Podbike AS: The company developing the Podbike velomobile distinguished by Podbike AS.

PP: Polypropylene QC: Quality Control

SETAC: Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry TIM: Thermal Interface Material

tkm: Tone Kilometre

UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme US: The United States of America

VAS Supplier: Vehicle Assembly Service Supplier Wh: Watt-hour

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1

Chapter 1,

Introduction

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2 1.1 Motivation

Greenhouse gases have a large array of adverse impacts on the environment and human health.

It has a direct negative impact by trapping solar radiant heat that can cause climate change, and indirect impacts such as respiratory illnesses through airborne pollution, weather and food supply disruption, ecosystem alteration, extinction or migration of species, etc. (NUNEZ, 2019).

Greenhouse gas emissions must be kept at a low level to prevent a dangerous climate change (Sørensen, 2014). In densely populated countries, more people would die of air pollution from cars than from car accidents (Caiazzo et al., 2013). Transportation is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, responsible for 15% of the world GHG emissions (World Resources Institute, 2017). Figure number 1 shows the global primary sources of GHG emissions by sector.

Figure 1, Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions, by Sector, Adopted from (World Resources Institute, 2017)

A recent study shows that obese car commuters have 32% higher risk of death than the ones with a normal weight commuting on bikes (European Association for the Study of Obesity, 2019). Moreover, underutilization of the human body causes more than 20% of deaths in the US (Booth and Hargreaves, 2011).

Regardless of the fact that the electric cars could lead to the lack of exercise and obesity, they require an enormous amount of energy for production and use (Simonsen, 2010), which itself contributes to the GHG emissions.

In 2016, the number of fatalities caused by cycling in the EU (Europe) reached approximately 2,000 reportedly, 8% of all road fatalities in Europe (European Commission, 2018). Most are explained by the lack of proper crash protection on the conventional bicycles. Although, this

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number decreased from almost 2,700 due to new safety initiatives, the proportion is still too high. The data are depicted through Figure 2.

Figure 2, Number of Cyclist Fatalities in EU, 2007-2016, Adopted from (European Commission, 2018)

All the mentioned reasons (e.g. GHG emissions, lack of exercise, crash and weather protection in conventional bicycles, etc.) made Per Hassel Sørensen to develop a four-wheeled electrically assisted velomobile with the aim of high sustainability, improved safety features, and low maintenance, in order to bridge the gap between cars and modern bicycles (Sørensen, 2014).

As mentioned, the product is designed to be sustainable, meaning, material, production methods, transportation, operation, maintenance and finally, disposal and recycling must have low eco-impacts (Sørensen, 2014). These are influenced by the amount of material and energy consumption, and the proportion of wastes and emissions released throughout the whole life cycle of the velomobile. Thus, the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method is a scientific way to document the sustainability.

Life cycle assessment, also known as life cycle analysis or cradle-to-grave assessment, is a systematic approach to analyse environmental and human health impacts concerning all the phases of the lifecycle of a commercial product or service (Ilgin and Gupta, 2010). According to the ISO 14044, life cycle is defined as sequential and interlinked phases of a product system, beginning with raw material acquisition or production from natural resources to eventual disposal or decommissioning. ISO is an international federation of national standards bodies Accordingly, this organization defines the LCA as an analysis of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental and human health impacts of a system product over its whole lifecycle (ISO14044, 2006, ISO14040, 2006).

LCA can enable people to pinpoint the aspects of a product which needs improvements for environmental and human health causes. It guides the decision makers, designers and manufacturers in strategic planning, design and engineering. Besides, it is a positive differentiator in marketing of a product (ISO14040, 2006).

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4 1.2. Aim of the Thesis

The main purpose of this thesis is to provide a distinctive, practical and productive application of the LCA methodology from environmental and human health perspective for electrically assisted velomobile as there are no case study known as LCA of velomobiles. Also, it can be a good guidance on a practical application of LCA for electrically assisted bicycles, since there are many common processes involved in the life cycle of an electrically assisted velomobile and life cycle of a standard electrically assisted bicycle.

There are some claims that riding this velomobile for the urban transportation purposes will reduce the damages to human health and ecosystem and increase the availability of resources.

Hence, the secondary objective of this thesis is to study the environmental and human health footprints of the developed velomobile through quantifying the potential environmental and human health impacts with the aim of examining the claims.

This approach will enable Podbike AS (the developer team of the product) in pilot test series production phase to identify the opportunities and improve the environmental and human health footprints performance of the product, not only in the production, but also in the use and disposal stages. Based on the pre-set objectives and strategies of the company which are sustainability, safety, practicality and good design (Podbike AS, 2020b), it is critical to realize the environmental and human health footprints of the product thoroughly, before it goes to the mass production phase.

In addition, qualitative data resulted from this investigation could lead to an in-depth understanding of the environmental sustainability improvements necessity in different production and operation.

1.3. Scope of Work

The present thesis explores the environmental and human health footprints of an electrically assisted velomobile.

In order to understand the importance of transportation and sustainability of this sector, the study begins with the trend of transportation and its impacts on human health, human life and the environment.

Further, asset life cycle analysis is introduced as a scientific and practical methodology for quantifying the products’ or services’ impacts on human health and environment. A state-of- the-art mean of transportation (i.e. the Podbike velomobile) is described, and the life cycle assessment methodology is developed for the product.

Accordingly, the results of the life cycle analysis are presented and the items with the highest impacts are highlighted. Then, the proposed methods of reducing the impacts and improving the sustainability of the product are outlined.

1.4. Methodology

The researcher has been working in this company for more than one year and he was a part of the research and development as well as the production planning of the company. As a result, some knowledges for this study are gained using day-to-day hands-on experiences.

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It is noticeable that the LCA methodology is performed for one single functional velomobile, developed by Podbike AS, which is supposed to be ridden in Norway and Germany.

The LCA methodology complies with the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. The ISO 14040 includes the principles and framework of environmental management and life cycle assessment. Also, it details the requirements for implementing the LCA methodology (ISO14040, 2006).

The ISO 14044, known as the environmental management and life cycle assessment requirements and guidelines is a complementary international standard to the ISO 14040. This standard benefits from a more detailed instruction for conducting the LCA study including clarification procedure, LCA limitations, selections of LCA values and optional elements, relationships between the LCA phases as well as the structures of review and reporting (ISO14044, 2006).

Both of the standards contain major steps that are required to be taken which are as follows:

• Goal and Scope Definition

• Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

• Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

• Interpretation

1.5. Assumptions and Limitations

Assumptions and limitations are important prerequisites of the study.

The limitations of the study are as follows:

• This study analyses the environmental and human health impacts of the product through its whole life cycle. The economic and social aspects of the product’s life cycle are not taken into account and are beyond the scope of this study.

• When implementing an LCA not all relative environmental and human health impacts are taken into account. This is due to the constraints associated with the definition of the system boundaries. As with most of LCAs, the studied system is complex, and the research could argue that the LCA could be more robust and comprehensive through providing a greater level of details and attaining more data. Nonetheless, in spite of almost countless number of facets to each of the phases for the product’s lifecycle, a reasonable level of goals, scope and system boundaries is required for the short time frame of the present thesis. Moreover, an LCA study can always use more data, incorporating more details, and expanding the system boundaries in order to increase the accuracy of the results.

• The final packaging of the product is not taken into consideration as it is not designed yet. This can be elaborated in future studies.

• The preparative process activities such as documentation, administration, etc. are not taken into consideration in this study as the inventory data collection requires resources in excess of what this study possess. Also, the environmental and human health impacts caused from these activities are assessed to be negligible compared to the impacts caused from the entire life cycle of the asset.

• The components with low mass and quantity for which the impacts are extremely small in comparison with the other parts, processes and assemblies, are not taken into consideration. For example, there are very small off-the-shelf components for which the masses are less than 0.0001 kg.

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• The components for which there are no available data in compliance with the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards on the database regarding the production, transportation, energy consumption and so on, such as small connectors are not considered in this study.

• Concerning the electronic units, especially the PCBAs (Printed Circuit Board Assemblies), standard life cycle data of the electronic control units of standard four- wheeled vehicle is utilized. Because the life cycle analysis model of the control units is so complex and requires an extensive amount of time to be developed for a specific product. Additionally, their impacts are presumed trivial in comparison with the other assemblies (e.g. rolling chassis, motor, battery pack, etc.).

• Since this product is under pilot testing, the BOM (Bill of Material) and technical documents of some assemblies are dynamic. Also, some suppliers and assembly service providers are not selected. This means there will be some changes in the technical specifications of the parts and materials, transportation distances etc. As a result, if considerable changes do occur, this study might not sufficiently reflect the future Podbike velomobile’s life cycle assessment.

1.6. Thesis Structure

The present thesis is divided into 9 chapters which are as follows:

1. Chapter 1, Introduction

The main motivations behind the study are presented. The objectives of the study are specified clearly. The scope of the work is explained. The main methodology of the study is illustrated. The assumptions and limitations of the study are delineated, and the structure of the present thesis is explained concisely.

2. Chapter 2, Literature Review

Transportation: Background, history and definition of transportation are explained briefly, and the main focus of this study concerning the type of transportation is specified clearly. Positive and negative impacts of transportation on the environment and human health are described using facts and statistics. The sustainability importance of the sector is described, also, the transition towards sustainability in this sector is scrutinized using concrete examples (i.e. new regulations, projects, business models, products, etc. which are already initiated). The impacts of different means of road transportation are analysed and compared.

Asset Life Cycle and Life Cycle Analysis Theories and Principles: Background and history of the LCA study are illustrated. Then, theories and principles, as well as the associated ISO standards, are detailed, also, the selected type of LCA study with supporting reasons is determined explicitly.

3. Chapter 3, State of the Art: Podbike Velomobile

The business idea of the product is briefly described. The asset is illustrated from the technical perspective using the technical documentation and prior studies. The asset’s production aspects are described coherently using the company’s production plan.

4. Chapter 4, Development of LCA Framework for Podbike Velomobile

LCA methodological framework is demonstrated and developed for the product in compliance with the ISO standards. Goal and scope of the LCA study are defined clearly based on the requirements of the study. Life cycle inventory step is defined for the asset. Life cycle impact assessment step is developed for the product. Interpretation

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step is defined and clarified; the dashboard template of the environmental and human health footprints performance is developed for the assets.

5. Chapter 5, Analysis and Results Based on the LCA Framework

Life Cycle Inventory: The results of the inventory data collection and inventory analysis are explained using the primary and secondary data.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment: The results of the LCA model and LCIA are presented and analyzed for each individual functional unit (i.e. two different regions are defined as the regions of operation). Then the comparative analysis between the selected functional units is made.

6. Chapter 6, Recommendation for Further Improvements

In this chapter, the main recommendations to the company and developer of the asset are formulated in accordance with the results obtained from the LCA study.

7. Chapter 7, Discussion

The main objectives and the scope of the thesis are explained to examine the consistency of the objectives and the results acquired. The main lessons learned throughout the thesis study briefly described. The major challenges faced during the present thesis are illustrated. The main opportunities for future studies are determined.

8. Chapter 8, Conclusion

The major conclusions and remarks with respect to the results and findings are described.

9. Chapter 9, Reference

The bibliographies which are utilized throughout the whole thesis study are listed.

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Chapter 2,

Literature Review

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9 2.1. Transportation

2.1.1. Transportation Background

In the beginning, humans were using their feet to move from one place to another. By 4000 BC to 3000 BC, humans learned that they could benefit from the animals for the movement. After the invention of wheels, boats and the roads across Europe from 3500 BC to 3100 BC, the transportation has seen a great change. By the time of the industrial revolution, and thereafter in the 17^th and 18^th century, a various array of means of transportation have arisen. Afterwards, in the 19^th century, the first internal combustion engines have been developed (Herbst, 2005), following that, the engines have been used in automobiles, boats, aeroplanes, etc. (Nguyen, 2020).

Transportation is defined as the movement of individual(s) and good(s) from one location to another, using a variety of modes (Britannica Academic, 2020). People select different modes (e.g. air, road, water, etc.) depending on their needs (Chakroborty and Das, 2017). For example, for daily commuting, they use their private cars, bicycles, public transportation, etc. or for the long-distance travels, they desire to use air modes, and accordingly aeroplanes to get to their destination quickly.

Transportation is categorised into private and mass transportation (Chakroborty and Das, 2017).

However, the main focus of this study is on the road and private transportations in urban areas, since the product is supposed to be a substitute for the private cars, conventional bicycles, etc., used for daily commuting.

2.1.2 Transportation Impacts on Environment

The impacts of transportation on the environment have been great of significance recently.

Global warming, air pollution, noise pollution and depletion of energy sources are the most important consequences of transportation (Fuglestvedt et al., 2008).

Air pollution and global warming are caused by a wide range of sources. However, in this investigation, the main attention is taken to the air pollution caused by transportation.

From the pre-industrial times to present, the transportation was accountable for around 16% of the total man-made GHGemissions (Fuglestvedt et al., 2008). After the industrial revolution and the development of the new modes of transportation, this has become one of the most important key contributing factors in the GHG emissions. In Norway, the amount of GHG emissions from the transportation has increased by approximately 33% from 1990 to 2017 (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2019). Following that, road transportation was responsible for almost 82% of the total GHG emissions of transportation in 2014 (European Environment Agency, 2018). CO2 is the leading greenhouse gas pollutant. From 1990 to 2000, CO2 emissions have grown by 13% and the CO2 emissions caused by the road transportation has risen by 25% in this period (Olivier, 2001). Although, in the European union the CO2

emissions have been reduced over this time, the amount of CO2 emitted through the road transportation has increased by roughly 21% in this region (European Environment Agency, 2004). Also, the transportation-induced CO2 emissions are predicted to go up as high as 30- 50% until 2050 (Nakicenovic et al., 2000). Another major source of the air pollution is nitrogen oxide that more than 40% of the pollutant comes from the road transportation (European Environment Agency, 2014). The share of the transportation induced GHG emissions in the EU is delineated through figure number 3.

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Figure 3, Breakdown of the Transportation Induced GHG Emissions in the EU, Adopted from (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2019)

Figure number 3 shows that the main source of the transportation induced GHG emissions is road transportation with a 72% share. Noticeably, 44% of the road transportation GHG emissions were from private cars (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2019). Moreover, GHGemissions in Norway is around 52 million tonnes, approximately 18% of the emissions is attributable to the road transportation, while the private cars release around 4.7 Mt of the GHG to air (Statistisk sentralbyrå, 2019).

In 2017, one of the greatest energy consumers was the road transportation sector, with 5% of the total energy consumption. Also, energy consumption by the transportation sector has gone up by nearly 5.8%. Hence, recent transport regulations in the EU have been focused on supporting more emission reduction initiatives in this sector (European Environment Agency, 2019).

2.1.3. Transportation Impacts on Human Health

Transportation can have a variety of positive and negative impacts on human health. The useful impacts can be an extensive range of accessibility (e.g. hospitals, educations, employment opportunities, etc.) or physical activities such as cycling. The disadvantages of transportation encompass of well-known health impacts caused by accidents, air pollution, noise pollution, and the GHG emissions (Mindell et al., 2011). A modal shift in transportation from automobiles to cycling and walking can decrease the drawbacks of transportation on human health and increase the beneficial effects.

It has been proven that air pollution generated by transportation has direct impacts on the mortality, respiratory and cardiovascular disease (Dora et al., 2000), cancer and adverse birth outcomes (World Health Organization, 2020). Seven million people die annually due to the air pollution and thus, this has posed a serious threat to human life (Ritchie and Roser, 2017). Air pollution results in 9% of deaths globally (Ritchie and Roser, 2017). It is estimated that the present degree of air pollutants in the EU contributes to the deaths of around 40 000-130 000

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adults annually (Dora et al., 2000). Figure 4 is an illustration of the share of premature deaths resulted from air pollution in 2017, globally.

Figure 4, Share of Premature Deaths Attributed to Air Pollution Globally (Ritchie and Roser, 2017)

Road traffic is the main contributor to noise pollution. In addition, According to the most recent data published by the EU’s Environmental Noise Directive, the largest source of environmental noise pollution is road traffic affecting approximately 75 million European residents (European Environment Agency, 2018), which could possibly lead to sleep disturbance, annoyance, speech interference, performance difficulties, hearing impairment and hypertension (Dora et al., 2000). Figure 5 depicts the number of European inhabitants exposed to high level of noise pollution generated from different modes of transportation in 2012.

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Figure 5, Number of European Residents Exposed to High Level of Noise Pollution Caused by the Transportation Modes, Adopted from (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2018b)

2.1.4. Transition Towards Sustainable Mobility

Transportation plays a main role in global economy, either within countries or between them.

Therefore, technological advancement, income rise and growth of competition between suppliers have resulted in a significant improvement of quality and effectiveness of the transportation systems (van Nunen et al., 2011). However, a systematic and transformative approach is left to be taken in order to achieve the 2050 vison of EU, namely ‘Living Well Within the Limits of Our Planet’. This vision is determined in the European Unions’ Seventh Environment Action Programme. SOER 2015 declared: “While progress has been made in meeting certain policy objectives, including efficiency and short-term GHG-reduction targets, major challenges remain toward meeting longer-term objectives. The European Commission's target of a 60 % reduction in transport GHG emissions by 2050 will require significant additional measures” (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2015, p. 1).

There are several regulations impacting the future of the transportation sector. According to

‘Effort Sharing Regulation’, a proposal, the transportation sector can contribute to a 30%

decrease of GHG emissions by 2030. This trend led the EU to evolve policies by which the target can be met (EEA, 2016). Taxation is one of the incentives implemented by several countries to reduce their emissions. Norway’s appropriate tax exemptions for BEVs (Battery Electric Vehicle) from acquisition, ownership, charging infrastructure, tolls, etc. have ensured the Norwegian policymakers that the cost of BEV and PHEV (Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle) is similar to the conventional cars. This has resulted in the lowest average CO2 emissions from the automobiles in Norway at 93g CO2/km, in 2016. In the Netherlands, the CO2 emissionhas dropped even faster than the average emission of EU due to the taxation procedures as well as the provision of benefits in favour of BEVs and PHEVs (European Environment Agency (EEA), 2018).

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New industries and business models have been initiated to achieve the EU’s targets. Paxter is a company that produces a four-wheeled electric vehicle in Norway. This product provides smart, efficient and environmentally friendly services tailored for post, parcel and newspaper distributions (Kjolberg, 2018). This 394-447 kg vehicle with a range of 40 km or up to 6 hours range is currently being utilized by the Norwegian post (Kjolberg, 2018, PAXSTER AS, 2020).

The product is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6, Norwegian Postman Driving the Paxter Product (Kjolberg, 2018)

ZAPTEC is one of the world-leading companies developing smart EV (Electric Vehicle) charging systems in the EU. They produce chargers for the EVs and have delivered charging cables with a designed-in EVSE-controller (Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Controller) integrated with an ultra-compact transformer. They are currently working on the development of smart home chargers (Figenbaum, 2018). The chargers are meant to provide sufficient charging infrastructures for electric vehicles (ZAPTEC, 2020). The product is displayed in figure 7.

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Figure 7, An EV Is Being Charged by the ZAPTEC Charger in UiS Campus, Stavanger, Norway (ZAPTEC, 2018)

Ultra-fast charging is the most recent development. Several fuel stations have already started installing the fast chargers (Figenbaum, 2018). Ionity is the company that are developing the fast chargers, and they plan to install them in a new charging park in Rygge, Norway in cooperation with Circle K. The charging stations can deliver 350 kW (Kilowatt). Also, 51 sites are currently under construction (IONITY, 2020).

Charger installations are increasingly taking place throughout the EU, especially in Norway.

The food store KIWI, the furniture shops IKEA and the fast-food restaurants, McDonalds, have started installing the EV chargers (Figenbaum, 2018).

E-scooters sharing is a solution for daily commuting use, which has become popular recently.

Through this micro-mobility service, an electric motorized scooter is available for short-term rent. The scooter is “Dockless”, which means that it does not have a permanent fixed location.

It can be picked up and then dropped off in an arbitrary place in the service zone (Ajao, 2019).

They have shown promising results for daily commuting in an urban area. This product and business model are being utilized in Oslo for short-term hire. The commuters can easily get from point A to B, while the e-scooters can be charged overnight (Inside Scandinavian Business, 2019). The e-scooter product is shown in figure 8.

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Figure 8, Riding E-scooters in Oslo, Norway (SANOTRA, 2019)

The Smart City project in Stavanger, Norway is another example. The project is launched with the aim of making Stavanger and two other cities in the Netherlands and the UK more sustainable, smart and liveable. Sustainable mobility through the use of electric buses is one of the most noticeable projects which has been already initiated (UiS, 2014). Autonomous bus is another project which is currently under the development in Forus area, Stavanger with the purpose of the smart and sustainable mobility. The first phase of the autonomous bus project was started in 2017 (Kolumbus, 2018). The autonomous bus is shown in figure 9.

Figure 9, Autonomous Bus Project Testing in Forus, Stavanger, Norway (Kolumbus, 2018)

There are some business models concerning car sharing which are already in operation or are being developed. MoveAbout is an instance, the firm offers business shared BEVs as an option to the conventional automobiles or taxis. Bilkollektivet is a different car sharing solution in

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Oslo through which, BEVs and PHVs are recommended to its members for rent as a part of their total offers (Figenbaum, 2018).

Regarding the cycling infrastructures, there have been a number of development and construction projects for the bicycle routes in the EU. EuroVelo is a network of 16 long-distance cycling routes which are developed or under the development throughout the EU (EuroVelo, 2020a). One example is EuroVelo 12 (EV12), the North Sea Cycle Route is a 5 942 km long- distance cycling route surrounding the coastlines of the countries bordering the North Sea. They are Norway, UK, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands and Belgium (EuroVelo, 2020b). Furthermore, the Norwegian Public Road Administration has prioritized the cycling infrastructure development as one of the most critical strategies in their decision making, planning and constructions. Consequently, they have set their strategies to make cycling more attractive through the following measures:

• Improve the safety (e.g. constructing specific routes for bicycles, evolving relevant policies, etc).

• Cycle traffic is given priority over cars and public transportation.

• Easy accessibility to bicycle parking areas in the shopping centres, company buildings, universities, etc.

One of the distinct examples of such a measure taken by the Norwegian Public Road Administration is the construction of continuous cycle path network (Statens Vegvesen Norwegian Public Road Administration, 2003, Statens vegvesen, 2012).

To sum up, a transition has already started with respect to the regulatory evolution, infrastructure construction, business model and product development in order to achieve the great purpose of reducing the GHG emissions and its adverse consequences either on people or environment.

2.1.5. Means of Road Transportation

As it is stated, one of the main sources of GHG emissions is private cars. The GHG emissions have grown in Norway (Statistisk sentralbyrå, 2019), despite the reduction in official fuel consumption per km as a result of more efficient engines as well as hybrid technologies. This is explained by increasing accumulated mileage and traffic congestion in cities (Mock et al., 2013).

Comparative life cycle emissions analysis between electric vehicle and its diesel and petrol counterparts has demonstrated that if the electric vehicle benefits from the electricity that is produced by renewable energy sources, it can substantially contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions and global warming (Hawkins et al., 2013). Figure 10 illustrates the emissions released by different short-distance transport commuters throughout the life cycle of each mean of transportation.

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Figure 10, Short Distance Emissions from Current Available Means of Transportation, Adopted from (Simonsen, 2010)

It is perceivable from the figure 10 that, the electric car is a good alternative for the private short distance transportation. Nevertheless, they emit a high amount of GHG over the production phase. Even though electric cars benefit from a charged battery, and have zero emissions during the use, energy consumption per person per km is still quite high because of the automobile’s high mass and its dependency on the electricity and road infrastructure (Simonsen, 2010). Particularly, for Norway, the energy efficiency of the short distance transportation should be improved by around 1000% so as to be able to avoid a dangerous level of climate change. This is feasible through the use of electrically assisted human-powered vehicles (Lemire-Elmore, 2004, Simonsen, 2010, Sørensen, 2014). In general, cars can lead to lack of exercise which can cause physical inactivity and obesity. Almost 31% of adults had inadequate physical activity in 2008, this could result in around 3.2 million deaths, globally (World Health Organization (WHO), 2019). According to a report from World Health Organization, the physical inactivity is partly attributable to today’s state of transportation which is more passive (World Health Organization (WHO), 2020)

According to an environmental comparative assessment of bicycle with other means of transportation, bicycle has proved the most favourable overall performance, hence it is considered as the best mean of transportation for short distances while train is regarded as the most promising mean of transportation for long distances (Bouwman, 2000). Furthermore, 1 km travel by bike needs about 5-15 Wh (watt-hour) energy, while the same distance by foot needs 15-20 Wh, 30-40 Wh by train and more than 400 Wh by an occupied car (Lemire-Elmore, 2004).

According to a comparative life cycle analysis between electrically assisted bicycle and human- powered one without any electric assistance, electric bikes require 2-4 times less primary energy than the required energy that human receives by eating an ordinary diet (Lemire-Elmore, 2004). An electrically assisted bicycle is shown in figure 11.

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Figure 11, An Ordinary Resident Riding an E-bike in England (Stevenson, 2019)

Lack of safety, weather protection and comfort are the major challenges associated with cycling (Goldsmith, 1992, Sørensen, 2014). Bicycle riders get killed in car accidents daily. Because the high mass and speed of the cars release a large amount of energy and impact (Rosen et al., 2011). Even the electric cars have caused the death of cyclists, an example is a cyclist who has been killed by a Tesla Model S, in November 2013, in California (BAXTER, 2014). One of the key factors that prevents people from choosing cycling as their main mean of transportation, especially for short distances and daily commuting is safety. As a result, safe cycling must be prioritized in order to change the transportation behaviours (Elliot et al., 2018), constructing specific infrastructure, lane, or specific structure for the bikes by which the safety of cyclists can be provided are some examples in this regard. Another challenge that prevents people from choosing bicycle as their mean of transportation, especially in a very cold or warm country is lack of weather protection (Goldsmith, 1992, Sørensen, 2014).

As a conclusion, electrical cars have the lowest level of GHG emissions during the use phase provided that the source of energy is renewable, while they still have high level of energy consumption also, their emissions over the production phase is quite high. Electrically assisted bicycles are a better choice considering the environmental aspects and the emissions.

Nevertheless, they have some important drawbacks that prevent people from selecting them as their mean of urban transportation which need to be addressed.

2.2. Asset Life Cycle and Life Cycle Analysis Theories and Principles 2.2.1. Life Cycle Assessment History and Background

LCAs were implemented in 1960-1970’s for the first time as a result of energy supply crisis.

The main purpose of the studies on the LCA implementations was to evolve more reliable LCA methodology and improve the accuracy of them in order to reduce the energy consumption

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(Sundström, 1979, Boustead, 1974). However, the main focus of the LCA studies in this period was on packaging alternatives. Afterwards, the public interest in this study decreased.

In the 1980’s, the study topic has enjoyed a renewed attention from the scientific and industrial communities. The main challenges concerning the LCA studies from 1970’s to 1990’s was the lack of international and standard scientific framework (Guinée et al., 1993); this led the outcomes of the studies to be widely different. Consequently, LCA was not accepted as a practical and analytical tool.

In the 1990’s many organizations have been established to develop this area of study internationally. SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry) as well as ISO (The International Organization for Standardization) were the major organizations which started developing this methodology. Moreover, during this period a variety of scientific papers and journals was published, and LCA became a part of legislation documents (Guinee et al., 2011).

Over the beginning of the 21^st century, a significant interest has been shown to LCA.

Establishing United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Life Cycle Partnership initiative between UNEP and SETAC were the most important actions which have been taken to improve the practicality of LCA (Guinee et al., 2011). Also, many European Policies have been developed in the matter of life cycle thinking (Commission of the European Communities, 2003).

In 2005, the European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment was developed to provide quality assured LCA data in order to support decision making in product and service development (Klöpffer, 2014). Furthermore, the recent efforts have been put into the LCA methods and framework for more elaboration and less divergence (Guinee et al., 2011).

2.2.2. Life Cycle Analysis Theories and Principles

Life Cycle Assessment known as Life Cycle Analysis is a scientific and systematic methodology through which the environmental and human health footprints and the eco impacts of a commercial product or service throughout its life cycle can be quantified (Ilgin and Gupta, 2010). The life cycle concept of product or service is illustrated in figure number 12.

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Figure 12, The Life Cycle Concept, Adopted from (European Lime Association, 2020)

ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 are the main standards which define and describe the LCA methodology and its requirements. According to the ISO 14040, life cycle is defined as sequential and interlinked phases of a product system, beginning with raw material acquisition, or production from natural resources to final disposal, recycling or decommissioning. ISO 14040 defines LCA as “compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle” (ISO14040, 2006, p. 2).

In this definition, the input is interpreted as “a product, material or energy flow which enters into unit process” (ISO 14040, 2006, p. 4) and output is defined as “a product, material or energy flow which leaves a unit process” (ISO 14040, 2006, p. 4). Also, product system is defined as “collection of unit processes with elementary and product flows, performing one or more defined functions, and which models the life cycle of a product” (ISO 14040, 2006, p. 4).

The principles of the LCA methodology are as follows:

• Life cycle perspective: It means the life cycle of product and service from raw material extraction, production and manufacturing, operation and use, maintenance and the end of life treatment must be taken into consideration throughout implementing the whole methodology (ISO14040, 2006).

• Environmental and human health focus: The main focus of the LCA study is on the environmental and human health footprints, therefore social, economic and technical aspects are outside of the scope of the study.

• Relative approach and functional unit: The LCA study is a relative technique which is organized around a functional unit (ISO14040, 2006), as a result, all the associated examinations must be structured around the functional unit as well.

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• Iterative approach: Each individual stage of the LCA utilises the outcomes of the other stages (ISO14040, 2006), hence iteration is required for comprehensiveness and consistency through the study.

• Transparency: The LCA study is complex (ISO14040, 2006), this means clarification throughout the approach is essential.

• Comprehensiveness: All facets and attributes of the methodology must be taken into account, considering the type of LCA.

• Priority of scientific approach: The scientific basis of the LCA study must be provided.

LCA is divided into two main categories:

• MidPoint-oriented LCA: The assessment of the impact category indicators is carried out at the midpoint level prior to the endpoint such as global warming, ozone depletion, etc. (Goedkoop et al., 2009). At this level, the environmental and human health relevance is evaluated using qualitative data and methods. Also, the results can be realized by environmental experts (BARE, 2000).

• EndPoint-oriented LCA: The assessment of the impact category indicators is carried out at the endpoint level such as human health, ecosystem, etc., while the indicators are presented as a result of the midpoint level indicators within a cause-and-effect context (Goedkoop et al., 2009). At this level, quantitative perception can be provided using the midpoint indicators for the investors and decision-makers (BARE, 2000) in order to determine the design, material, production, logistics, etc.

The MidPoint and EndPoint LCA studies are illustrated in figure 13.

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Figure 13, The MidPoint & EndPoint Impact Category Indicators, and Their Relationship (Goedkoop et al., 2009, p. 3)

In this study, the EndPoint-oriented LCA methodology is chosen, since the results are supposed to be utilized by the people who are not environmental experts, such as mechanical or electrical engineers, product designers, etc. Moreover, the results are meant to support the investors’ and shareholders’ decision making. Therefore, it is important to be understandable to non-experts.

At the EndPoint level, most of the MidPoint impact categories are converted and aggregated to the following EndPoint categories (Huijbregts et al., 2017):

• Damage to Human Health (HH)

• Damage to Ecosystem Diversity (ED)

• Damage to Resource Availability (RA)

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Chapter 3,

State of the Art: Podbike Velomobile

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The adverse effects of today’s transportation for short-distance commuting (e.g. GHG emissions, noise pollution, etc.), lack of exercise and high level of life-cycle emissions associated with EVs, lack of comfort, crash and weather protection of electrically assisted bicycles have caused Per Hassel Sørensen to conclude that the society needs a more sustainable, practical, safe and comfortable solution for urban transportation.

It is believed that the concept of velomobile can offset the unsustainable transportation pattern (Sørensen, 2014). The velomobile is defined as a human-powered vehicle, derived from bicycle or tricycle which is partly or entirely enclosed to protect the rider from weather and collisions (Van De Walle, 2004). A velomobile with an electric assist can increase comfort and safety of e-bike, concurrently reduce the negative environmental and human health impacts of car and public transportation (Sørensen, 2014).

The Podbike velomobile is an innovative mobility solution which is supposed to bridge the gap between cars and bicycles while preserving the exercise benefits with an acceptable level of safety, comfort and sustainability (Sørensen, 2014). It maintains the low level of life-cycle emissions for short-distance transportation associated with electrically assisted bicycle, while it enhances safety with improved crash protection and increased comfort with weather protection. The studied product is shown in figure 14.

Figure 14, Riding a Podbike Velomobile in Norway (Podbike AS, 2019b)

3.2. Technical Aspects of Podbike Velomobile

The product is a velomobile with electric assistance. It has an adjustable seat for a single adult and space just behind the main seat, either for an optional child seat or luggage. The body is fully enclosed for the cyclist and the optional passenger, made of recyclable thermoplastic composite material which can absorb energy. The velomobile has four standard bicycle wheels, the rear wheels are covered by the body panels (Sørensen, 2014). Under the main seat, there is a steering handle with rod linkage controlling the front wheels. The chassis is made of a robust

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self-reinforced aluminium sandwich baseplate. The product benefits from a series-hybrid driveline with a pedal generator and two rear motors propelling the rear wheels. The mechanical parts within the product are made for 10 000-hour operation (Sørensen, 2019). Concurrently, it utilizes a fully independent suspension that can bring about vertical parking (Sørensen, 2014).

All the parts’ materials are selected in accordance with the environmental best practices within the designated market. In order to reduce the cost of maintenance, most of the parts can be repaired at reasonable cost excepting the batteries and some electronic sub-assemblies due to the hazardous risks (e.g. fire risks, etc.) or anti-tamper requirements (Sørensen, 2019). Also, the vehicle is designed to be in compliance with EU regulation and safety requirements.

The Podbike velomobile has a wide range of important characteristics which make it unique in its kind:

1. Series hybrid drive with two motors has led the vehicle to have a simpler drive train, with low cost of mass production associated with the motors, uncluttered platform chassis and adjustable pedal position. Also, it is compliant with the legislations concerning the electrically assisted bicycle in the EU.

2. Broad operating temperature and active balancing for the hybrid electric transmission thanks to state-of- the-art battery control system.

3. Thermoplastic composite as a recyclable and environmentally friendly material for the body.

4. A suspension system, offering space-efficient parking, low air drags and comfort for rider.

5. Aerodynamic design, making the product efficient and practical (Sørensen, 2014).

6. Easy enter and exit as an important comfort factor.

7. Light weight with a reasonable cost for the final users.

8. Categorized as electrically assisted bicycle based on the EU and Norwegian policies, meaning it benefits from the priority of bicycles in roads traffic. Also, it can be utilized on the bicycle highways across the EU (Podbike AS, 2020a).

As it is stated earlier, the Podbike velomobile is designed to bring sustainability to urban transportation. Also, sustainability is defined as an integral part of the company and product (Podbike AS, 2020b). It means the product must have low eco-impacts with respect to design, material, production, transportation, use, maintenance and disposal or recycling.

3.3. Production Process Aspects

The company, Podbike AS includes a number of stakeholders such as suppliers, assembly service partners, customers, employees, investors, etc. Primarily, the supply chain is the representative of the asset’s production. The IDEF (Integration Definition for Function Modelling) diagram concept is used to demonstrate the operation use-case scenario of the company under regular circumstances. The main concept of the IDEF diagram is based on five

Figure 15, The Space-Efficient Parking Concept of the Podbike Velomobile,

(Podbike AS, 2019b)

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main elements (i.e. function or activity, controlling elements, mechanism and resources, inputs, outputs) (Noran, 2000) are shown through figure 16:

Figure 16, Main Concept of the IDEF Diagram (Lightsey, 2001, p. 51)

Figure 17 is the IDEF diagram, developed for the asset’s production and delivery which scrutinizes the main operational aspects of the company. In this figure, the white boxes are the representative of the main functions involved in the operation of the company, the blue boxes at the top represent the controlling elements while the blue boxes at the bottom show the resources and or mechanisms available to carry out the associated function. The inputs and outputs of each individual function as well as the cause-and-effect relationships of the activities are illustrated using the blue arrows.

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Figure 17, IDEF Diagram of the Podbike AS's Operation, Adopted from (Lightsey, 2001)

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Chapter 4,

Development of LCA Framework for

Podbike Velomobile

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Since one of the main objectives of the Podbike velomobile is sustainability (Podbike AS, 2020b), LCA studies are required in order to quantify the environmental and human health footprints (Sørensen, 2014) of the product and reduce the adverse effects through making modifications and improvements in the development phase. Also, implementing the changes in the product development phase is less costly and more efficient.

Accordingly, since Podbike AS is in the development phase and is transiting towards mass production, it is critical to choose the right design, material, production method and transportation to minimize the environmental and human health impacts and maximize the efficiency.

4.1. LCA Methodology Framework

The Methodological Framework section demonstrates the essential aspects of LCA study in accordance with the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, and it delineates how the LCA study can be implemented on the product. Also, some of the knowledges and inputs for the development of this framework are gained using practical and hands-on experiences of the researcher since he has been working for more than one year for Podbike AS and he has been involving in the production planning and the product development.

According to the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standardised frameworks, an LCA examination consists of four methodological steps in the following order (ISO14040, 2006, ISO14044, 2006):

1. Goal and Scope Definition.

2. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI).

3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA).

4. Interpretation.

The LCA framework is outlined through figure 18.

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Figure 18, LCA Framework, Adopted from (ISO14040, 2006, ISO14044, 2006)

These steps assist to quantify the environmental energy and material flows that either directly or indirectly affect the energy and material consumption during the production, distribution, use and end of life treatment of the velomobile (Hellweg, 2005).

4.2. Goal and Scope Definition

In this section, the definitions of the following elements must be made:

• All of the products and services to be assessed.

• Functional unit or a functional basis for comparison purposes.

• The unit system boundaries.

• The environmental and human health impact categories of interest.

• The required level of details (Hellweg, 2005, ISO14040, 2006).

The product is a Podbike velomobile delivered to an ordinary end user. Two regions for the operation of the product are selected; Norway and Germany (the main market of the product).

There are three reasons for this approach:

1. The main market of the product is in Germany, meaning most of the velomobiles will be used in Germany at least for the first and second series production batches, thereby Germany should be chosen in order to have a sensible overview of the product’s environmental and human health impacts in the first years.

2. The original country of the product is Norway. It is planned to start delivery of the pre- order customers in Norway, the Nordics and Germany then followed by the rest of the EU. Also, it is predicted that the orders placed from the Norwegian customers for this product will increase substantially after the test series production. Furthermore, the region of the test series production is Norway (Podbike AS, 2019a). Hence, having Norway as another region of operation is important.

3. Norway and Germany have different electricity generation mix (Holstad et al., 2020), and since the source of energy could alter the results of the study, understanding the

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consequences of this mix are necessary for the technical team and the investors of the Podbike company to have a more realistic and comprehensive overview.

As a result, the defined functional units are 200 000 km travelled by one adult in each market.

As it is stated earlier, since the LCA study is an EndPoint LCA, the environmental and human health categories of interest are resource depletion, ecosystem damages and human health damages.

The unit system boundaries and the required level of details are illustrated in figure 19. The orange square stands for the entire system boundary under the LCA study and the green squares describe the necessary energy and material inputs and outputs with the specified level of details.

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Figure 19, The LCA Stages of the Podbike Velomobile & its System Boundaries

MASTER'S THESIS

MASTER'S THESIS

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Terms and Definitions

Chapter 1,

Introduction

Chapter 2,

Literature Review

Chapter 3,

State of the Art: Podbike Velomobile

Chapter 4,

Development of LCA Framework for

Podbike Velomobile