Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

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Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

Daniel Yaw Acheampong

Master Thesis

Master of Philosopy in Special Needs Education Department of Special Needs Education

Faculty of Educational Sciences UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

June 2018

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Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

A study conducted at one of the classroom’s for all in the Ghanaian context.

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Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All Daniel Yaw Acheampong

http://www.duo.uio.no/

Trykk: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo

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Abstract

The study seeks to ascertain the interaction between teachers and sighted children with visually impaired children in the classroom for all in the Ghanaian context. The study focuses in answering the following research questions (1) How do teachers interact with visually impaired children in the classroom for all? (2) What is the opinion of teachers about the need for interaction with visually impaired children in the classroom for all? (3) How do teachers facilitate interaction between visually impaired children and non-visually impaired children in the classroom for all? (4) How do teachers organise the classroom for all during teaching and learning process?

In the process of gathering data for the study qualitative research strategy was used. The choice of this strategy stemmed from the fact that I wanted to have in-depth information from the informants in their own social environment in relation to the study. To ensure the

trustworthiness of the study more than one method of data collection instrument was used.

Semi-structured interviews and non-participant observation were the methods that were used to gather data for the study. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to sample the informants for the study. In all seven informants were selected to participate in the study.

Two teachers who teach children with visual impairments, two non-visually impaired children and three visually impaired children.

The findings revealed that there is a minimal interaction between teachers who teach children with visual impairments in the classroom for all. The situation is attributed to the fact that there is inadequacy of teaching and learning materials in the school and also most of the teachers who teach children with visual impairments in the classroom for all do not have the requisite training in the field of special needs education. As a result, the teachers do not have the needed skills and knowledge to identify the needs of the children so as to plan their

teaching strategies to meet the needs of the children to ensure positive interaction in the class.

The findings revealed again that children with visual impairments experience exclusion, stigmatization and teasing in the classroom for all from their sighted counterparts. The cause of the behaviour and the attitude of the non visually impaired children toward their visually impaired counterparts is attributed to the fact that the children have little knowledge about disability issues and think that disability is a contagious disease. As a result it is

recommended that there should be more education on disability issues in Ghana. It is also

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VII recommended that to ensure the provision of quality education for all children more teaching and learning materials and qualified special needs teachers should be made available in the classroom for all to ensure that children with special educational needs like children with visual impairments are able to benefit during teaching and learning in this educational environment in the Ghanaian context.

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Dedication

I would like to dedicate this project to my parents: Robert Kofi Acheampong of the blessed memory and Akua Nyanta my mother as well as my step mother Comfort Acheampong also of blessed memory. Your support and upbring have made me who I am today.

Also, to my lovely wife Comfort Owusuaa and my children: Jeffery Owoahene Acheampong, Joel Osei Basoa Acheampong and Jael Nyanta Acheampong. Please, I appreciate your

support, prayers and endurance throughout the period that I have been away from home because of this further studies.

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Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to the Almighty God for making it possible for me to finish this master’s degree in Special Needs Education. To God be the glory. I would like also to express my deepest gratitude to my outstanding supervisor Professor Kolbjorn Varmann for his

constructive criticisms, patience, positive directives, encouragement, motivation as well as his commitment in the supervision of this project to ensure its successful completion.

I am also thankful to other capable and competent lecturers at the Department of Special Needs Education at the University of Oslo. Most especially, Professor Jorun Buli-Holmberg, Professor Steiner Theie, Professor Berit Johnsen, Professor Athanasios Protopapas, Professor Vasiliki Diamanti, and Mr. Magnar Odegard. Not forgetting Mr. Nicolai Mowinckel-Trysnes for his tremendous support during examination periods. Just to mention but a few. I am very much appreciative of your diverse contributions towards this master’s thesis in particular and my studies in general at this department of Special Needs Education.

Again, I want to acknowledge the various supports that I obtained from my course mates throughout the period of my studies at the University of Oslo. I am also thankful to the head teacher and the entire staff of the school where I collected data for this study. I am particularly grateful to all the informants for devoting their energy and time to provide me with the

necessary data for the study.

Daniel Yaw Acheampong.

Oslo, June 2018.

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Abbreviations and acronyms

Cortical Visual Impairment – CVI Critical Disability Theory – CDT

Curriculum Research Development Division – CRDD Division of Special Education - DSE

Education for All - EFA

Education Quality for All - EQUALL Education Strategic Plan – ESP

Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education - FCUBE Ghana Education Service – GES

Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda – GSGDA Government - Gov

Ministry of Education - MoE

Ministry Of Education Youth and Sports – MOEYS Optic Nerve Atrophy – ONA

Special Education Needs – SEN United Nations – UN

United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO United Nations International Children’s Emergence Fund – UNICEF United States Agency for International Development – USAID Universal Design for Learning – UDL

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1 Chapter one (Introduction to the study)

This chapter presents the introduction, goal and significance of the study, the research

problem as well as the statement of the problem. Again, it presents the concept of segregation and inclusive education, the views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from global perspective, and the views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from the Ghanaian context. It also looks at the views of advocates for the education of children with disabilities in the inclusive context from global perspective and the views of advocates for the education of children with

disabilities in the inclusive setting from the Ghanaian context. The chapter concludes with the structure of the study. The next section of the chapter presents the introduction of the study.

1.1 Introduction

The study seeks to ascertain the interaction between teachers and sighted children with visually impaired children in the classroom for all in the Ghanaian context. The study becomes relevant because research has shown that the environment in the education of children with special educational needs such as visually impaired children are very important because the kind of interaction that exists between the visually impaired children and their sighted counterparts and between the teachers in the classroom for all influences the

academic, emotional and social development among others of the children in the school and the classroom context.

In view of this I have been motivated to conduct this research to ascertain the extent to which teachers and non-visually impaired children interact with visually impaired children in the classroom for all to ensure that children with visual impairments benefit during teaching and learning process to promote their learning and social development in the Ghanaian

environment. Even though there has been a number of research conducted in this field of study internationally, but not much in the Ghanaian local context. According to Buli-

Holmberg & Alagappa (2016) children with special educational needs are children who by the virtue of their mental, physical as well as their sensory conditions need more appropriate or specific instruction than is normally available in the informal and the formal educational structures.

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In line with this for visually impaired children to be included in the classroom for all and learning to be meaningful to these children, special attention should be given to the children during teaching and the learning process. For this reason the quality of interaction between the teachers and the children as well as their sighted counterparts are of paramount

importance. In support of this Buli-Holmberg & Alagappa (2016) write that “interaction of teachers with students creates motivation with the students to learn better. This interaction helps students to come out with their strengths and weaknesses” (p. 6). As a result of this through appropriate interaction the teacher will be able to select teaching methods and

materials that are adaptable to the strengths and needs of the children in order to enhance their academic and social development.

According to Lerner (2003) social development are skills and competences that are needed by individuals for successful daily living which ensures that individuals are able to interact successfully with peers, teachers and other people. In this domain, Frederickson and Cline (2009) argue that development of social competence through quality interaction between the teacher and the children has great benefit because it promotes societal cohesion, it improves learning as well as improving the child’s attendance in school because the child sees the school as a second home.

Rye (2001) writes that in recent years research has documented the importance of quality interpersonal relationships for the development and learning for children. In respect to this the writer opines that for children as such visually impaired children to be secured and to do well in school, learn, and develop socially and emotionally in the classroom, the interaction between the teacher and the children and the interaction between children and children are very necessary. In the classroom for all, Salleh & Zainal (2010) warn that visually impaired children who are not able to master social skills and show a good social behaviour will suffer isolation and segregation from their sighted counterparts in the classroom for all.

As a reaction to this Rye (2001) explains that teachers should facilitate student-student interaction to build their social acceptance by helping the students to adjust to one another, talk about and share experiences, express acceptance, praise, and recognition, develop self- discipline among others. The author further argues that in the interaction process teachers should adapt to the students, give praise and acknowledgements, helps students to focus their attention, and to give meaning to students’ experiences. The ensuing section presents the goal and the significant of the study.

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1.2 The goal and significance of the study

The goal of the study is to find out how the interaction of teachers and sighted children influences the social and academic development of children with visual impairments in the classroom for all in the Ghanaian social context. The section that follows looks at the research problem.

1.3 Research problem

The study seeks to answer this main research question: How do teachers ensure interaction with visually impaired children in the classroom for all? In relation to this main research question the following sub research questions are formulated to help in the data collection process.

1. How do teachers interact with visually impaired children in the classroom for all?

2. What is the opinion of teachers about the need for interaction with visually impaired children in the classroom for all?

3. How do teachers facilitate interaction between visually impaired children and non-visually impaired children in the classroom for all?

4. How do teachers organise the classroom for all during teaching and learning process? The next section presents the statement of the problem.

1.4 Statement of the problem

The argument is that, in the Ghanaian context not much literature has been done in the area relating to the interaction of children with visual impairments in the classroom for all. This is problematic because it seems to suggests that the education of children with visual impairments is not given much attention in the Ghanaian context. As a result, researchers are not well motivated to conduct research work in this area of study. In my view, this study will help fill this gap in research in the Ghanaian setting. For the purpose of this study inclusive classroom and classroom for all are used interchangeably to mean the same concept. The next section of the chapter presents the concept of segregation and inclusive education.

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1.5 The concept of segregation and inclusive education

It is very vital that the concept of segregation and inclusive education are discussed in this study. The reason is that these concepts are very important as far as the education of children with disabilities like the visually impaired children is concerned. There has been series of debates with regards to the most convenient place to educate children with disabilities like children with visual impairments. Some scholars are in favour of inclusive environment while other researchers argue for segregated context. In the direction of this Wang (2009) writes that throughout the history of education the environment to provide education for children with disabilities has long been debated. To discuss these concepts it is of paramount importance to present how the concepts have been defined by certain researchers.

According to Dixon (2005) “segregated classroom is simply what the name implies-a self- contained classroom filled with students who have a particular or any number of disabilities”

(p. 2). From Dixon (2005) Perspective, segregation with respect to education and in line with this study represents the placement of children with similar disabilities for example, children with visual impairments in the same school and the same classroom environment where they are provided with special educational needs based on their characteristics. “Traditionally children requiring special educational needs (SEN) are segregated into separate learning environments” (Wang, 2009, p. 154).

In considering the definition of inclusive education, Wang (2009) understands it as the education of children who have disabilities and those without disabilities together in the same school and classroom environment where the needs of children with disabilities are taken care of in this school and classroom context. Similarly, according to Polloway, et al. (2014) inclusion in the domain of education is to cater for the needs of the students in the regular classroom rather than to take the students to support services for their needs to be taken care of at these support services. Additionally, Wang (2009, p. 154) contends that “inclusion involves the reorganization of ordinary schools, in such a way that every mainstream school is capable of accommodating every student regardless of their disabilities, making it certain that each learner belongs to a single community”.

Dixon (2005) expands the definition of the concepts, the writer argues that the terms integrated and mainstreamed classrooms are the same but the two concepts are not the same as inclusive classrooms. For mainstreaming, the researcher explains that, the concept emerged

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5 from two parallel school systems, that is, special education and general education, and there is an underlying assumption of inequality between the two educational systems. This assumption according to Dixon (2005) is simply a cultural practice in public education, whereby special education has become an important system but smaller than and separate from general education. For integration the author explains that it involves members of the lesser system that is special education joining the majority and favoured mainstream. Dixon (2005) contends again that inclusive education is not just the matter of placing students with disabilities into the regular classrooms but a philosophy that enhances the education of all children.

But in contrast to the view of Dixon (2005) in the differentiation of the concepts Polloway, et al. (2014) use the concept of inclusion, mainstreaming, and integration interchangeably in their study to mean the same thing. Nevertheless, UNICEF (2013) writes that “inclusion goes beyond integration. To take an example from the field of education, integration might be attempted simply by admitting children with disabilities to “regular” schools. Inclusion however is possible only when schools are designed and administered so that all children can learn and play together” (p. 4). It is important to point it out that the two concepts, integration and mainstreaming were the first terminologies to emerge first but currently the focus is now on inclusive education. At this point, it is essential to present the reasons why researchers advocate for either segregation or inclusive environment for the education of children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments. The next section of the chapter presents the views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from global perspective.

1.5.1 Views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from global perspective.

From the global perspective, several researchers have clearly stated their views in support of educating children with disabilities in segregated schools that is, special schools rather than inclusive environment. These researchers argue for their position based on a number of reasons. But basically their argument hinges mainly on the diverse nature of children with disabilities that requires special attention and needs for which these children will not have access to on the general (inclusive) school context. To highlight this Kauffman (1993) clearly states his disagreement with the view of educating all children in the inclusive context without

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taking into consideration the diverse nature of these children. The writer explains that if diversity among children is something worth taking care of, then it is equally important that diversity of services, programs, and environments providing appropriate education for children should also be considered.

In a similar perspective Bullock & Gable (2006) state that children with emotional and behavioural disorders may have challenges to cope in the inclusive environment in line with their learning and social development in this educational context. The researchers explain that many children with emotional and behavioural disorders exhibit externalized behaviour problems including acting out and aggressiveness. The authors further explain that other children show behaviours like distractibility, social withdrawn, fearfulness, non compliance, unmotivated and disinterest in school and these behaviours are not acceptable in many classrooms for all. In line with the advantages of segregation, Kauffman (1993) states that

“what has been lost is the memory that special education was created to help schools serve all children better- to help teachers deal with the diversity of students. The problems that brought special education into being remain features of general education, and merging special into general education will not alter those realities” (p. 17).

Sindelar, et al. (2006) argue in their study concerning the sustainability of inclusive education reform and summed up in their research findings that inclusive education is not sustainable.

Scholars in favour of segregation education criticize researchers who support inclusive education as not offering the people the freedom to choose. This argument is evident in Rimland (1993) research work when the researcher argues that inclusion rejects the idea that people should be free to make choices for themselves, the options they desire and compels them to agree or accept the perspective of others. According to Antia & Levine (2001) the planning of inclusive programs are very complex tasks and very expensive as well in view of that the concept may not be the right choice for every child, taking into consideration the developmental challenges presented by diverse nature of children with disabilities like children with visual impairments.

In deducing from the discussion it is seems to suggest that, advocates of segregation are convinced that the best place for the education of children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments is segregated or special schools. According to Osgood (2005) segregated type of education for the education of children with disabilities has been advocated for by the vast majority of school professionals and researchers, who base their arguments on

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7 two fundamental principles, that segregation was important for efficient classroom and school operation, and that separate programs for children with disabilities was in their best educational and psychological interest.

In addition, Dixon (2005) argues that, “advocates of segregated classrooms claim that students with special needs require teachers who are trained in the area of special education- trained to work with students who have a variety of disabilities” (p. 3). In support of this point, Dixon (2005) again notes that for the past forty-five years the field of special education has been differentiating itself, developing analytical techniques and methodological skills which have been designed to take care of different forms of disabilities. The researcher further explains that people in this area of professional endeavour are equipped with knowledge and skills which are essential to those with mental, emotional and physical disabilities. “Related to the body of knowledge and skills possessed by special educators, there is also the perception that special education provides more individualized attention for students with special needs”

(Dixon, 2005, p. 4).

Wang (2009) states that, “educators find segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum , but also the thought of attending classes with classmates having the same disabilities enhances their confidence or self-esteem as well” (p. 154). Wang again notes that, segregated type of education for children with disability like children with visual impairments assures the security and sufficient support for the education of the children in this educational environment. The next section of the chapter presents the views of Ghanaian researchers in relation to the education of children with disabilities in the segregated environment.

1.5.2 Views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from Ghanaian context.

Other Ghanaian researchers have also presented the perspectives of Ghanaians in relation to the education of children with disabilities in line with this debate of inclusiveness and segregation. Those who are in support of segregated type of education for children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments argue on a number of grounds. But, their perceptions are not different from the perspectives of the other advocates discussed earlier on from the global perspective. From the study conducted by Agbenyega (2007) the researcher

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reported that teachers who teach in the regular schools in the Ghanaian context are not ready to have children with disability in their classrooms. The author states that, “teachers believe that regular schools are not places for students with disabilities, particularly those with sensory impairments” (p. 53). In line with this Agbenyega (2007) attributes the attitudes of the teachers to the fact that most of them have not received adequate training to effectively teach children with disabilities in the inclusive schools and lack of educational resources in this educational environment, The researcher also explains that “the beliefs, negative attitude and concerned expressed by teachers...may be explained due to lack of professional preparedness, available resources, lack of sufficient orientation of specialist assistance” (p.

53).

In addition Avoke, & et al. (1999) argue that children with impairments have special needs and as such it requires special teachers to attend to their special needs. The researchers also argue that presently teachers, and in particular those who do not have special needs education background are not well equipped to manage some of these challenging conditions for the children in the inclusive setting in the Ghanaian context. Nevertheless the scholars note that

“training teachers in special educational needs is ongoing. Pre-service teachers have since 1990s been exposed to introductory course in special needs education, the number of teachers specializing in special needs also keeps increasing annually” (p. 101).

Avoke (2005) also states that teachers in the regular schools are reluctant to have children with disabilities like children with visual impairments in their class and due to that most at times these teachers discriminate against the children with disabilities. In view of this the researcher explains that if these children that is children with disabilities like visual impairments are to have their education in the regular schools that is the inclusive schools in the Ghanaian context their learning needs will be met. The subsequent section of the chapter presents the views of the advocates of educating children with disabilities in the inclusive environment from global perspective.

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1.5.3 Views of advocates for the education of children with disabilities in the inclusive context from global perspective

Notwithstanding the perspectives of the advocates of segregated type of education for children with disabilities like children with visual impairments, several researchers have also shown their interest for the education of children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments in the inclusive context. Primarily, their arguments are based on the issue of human rights for the education of all children in the same educational environment. These scholars argue that it is fundamental human rights for all children in the same environment mostly living in the same community to have their education at the same social context irrespective of their characteristics or conditions in order to do away with stigma, isolation and discrimination which are the main characteristics of segregated type of education for children with special educational needs like children with visual impairments.

In highlighting on the issue of human rights which serves as the guiding principles of the advocates of inclusive education for children with disabilities, Avramidis, et al. (2000) write that inclusive education is more focused on the discussion of values. This highlights that, the writers argue that the principle behind inclusive education is based on broad agenda of human rights, clearly arguing that segregation of any form as far as the education of children is concerned is morally incorrect. Save the Children (2010) explains that human rights are rights a person has because he or she is a human being. In line with this Avoke, et al. (1999) state that “the Salamanca Conference of 1994 gave birth to the international movement towards inclusion of children with disabilities or special educational needs in regular classrooms, rather than segregated institutions” (p. 72).

The researchers argue that in recent years, the inclusive philosophy is pursued by both developed and developing countries and professionals in special needs education, civil rights organizations and other stakeholders across the globe are diligently at developing inclusive philosophies which will make regular schools accessible to all students. According to Oliver (1996a) several researchers argue that inclusive education should be perceived as a right for all children with special educational needs. But, the question of the availability of resources to enhance teaching and learning in the inclusive context most especially in the African context is yet to be answered.

Wang (2009) writes that “inclusive schools are established primarily for improving the special children’s learning and development, specifically inclusion aims to benefit special children

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through improvement in their learning outcomes, including their social skills, academic achievement and personal development” (p. 155). In contrast Kauffman (1993) explains that recent empirical evidence does not indicate that at the moment there is effective and reliable strategy for improving and sustaining outcomes for all students in regular classrooms. But, Jenkinson (1997) states that several educators have indicated that exposing children into ordinary that is inclusive education settings will be the most effective way of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future. The author also argues that segregation results in isolation and labeling not only the children but also teachers and educators which makes their teaching competencies limited as well.

But on the contrary view Kauffman (1993) explains that studies of social status of children with disabilities do not indicate that stigma and isolation that the children experience is necessarily as a result of being taught outside the regular classroom. Kauffman (1993) seems to suggest that the isolation and stigmatization that people have perceived to be the features of segregation is not the school environment or the classroom itself but the children in the school or the classroom environment because the researcher argues that even in the inclusive school environment children with disabilities experience isolation and stigmatization. Other researchers have also explained in their study that inclusive education has become a burden to most teachers. According to Dyson (2001) the writer reports that teachers face constant dilemmas in the inclusive environment ranging from seating arrangements, pace, learning style and individual attention. Dyson (2001) adds that catering to a range of needs in a single class is difficult for the majority of teachers.

Semmel, et al. (1991) explain in their research findings, after surveying 381 elementary educators from the schools that is, general and special schools. The writers concluded that the participated educators were not in support of placing special students in mainstream schools.

In a similar study carried out by Vaughn, et al. (1996) about the perception of both mainstream and special educators’ towards inclusion by means on focus group interviews, the researchers reported that the majority of the participants who were not participating in any inclusion programmes had strong negative thoughts and feelings about inclusion. The authors argue again that the participants mentioned that such a system was impracticable for decision makers to implement as it is not applicable to classroom realities. They stated that the teachers identified several factors that would militate against the success of inclusion, such as class

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11 size, inadequate resources, the extent to which all students would benefit from inclusion and lack of adequate teacher preparation.

But irrespective of these views, Villa, et al. (1996) research work on inclusion, the researchers argue that teachers’ commitment often comes out at the end of the implementation cycle, after the teachers have gained mastery of the professional expertise needed to implement inclusive programmes. For advocates of inclusive education for children with disabilities as such Dixon (2005) argues that in the inclusive environment all students learn from one another and having a “variety of abilities and disabilities....allows students to experience and accept the differences and commonalities that make up diverse society” (p. 42). In a similar perspective, Skrtic, et al. (1996) argue that a successful inclusive learning community promotes problem solving, collaboration, critical discourse and self-directed learning for all children. The next section of the chapter presents the views of advocates for inclusive education for children with disabilities from Ghanaian context.

1.5.4 Views of advocates for inclusive education for children with disabilities from Ghanaian context.

In the Ghanaian context, other researchers have also stated their perspectives in line with the education of children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments in the inclusive environment. Their side of the argument is not different from the arguments presented by other researchers who advocates for inclusive education which have been discussed so far. Basically, they argue on the issue of human rights, and also to do away with stigmatization, exclusion and discrimination which are the main characteristics of segregated type of education.

To begin with Agbenyega (2003) presents Gibson (1986) observation about segregated form of education in the Ghanaian context and the researcher emphasizes that such form of education should give way to inclusive one in the Ghanaian environment. Gibson argues that

“segregated form of special education is an act of labeling and stigmatization that legitimize existing social inequalities, and those that so labelled, feel legitimately inferior and posses reduced control over the determination of their lives” (cited in Agbenyega, 2003, p. 8). In the same domain Agbenyeya (2003) advises that “it is important for Ghana to immediately realize the importance of inclusive education as a means of reducing the labeling process, which, at the moment is perpetuated through the practice of segregation” (p. 10).

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Avoke et al. (1999) state that Ghana is at the piloting stage of inclusive education, the researchers explain that in the Ghanaian context, the ultimate aim of inclusive education is to achieve quality education for all children irrespective of the circumstances of the child. In line with ensuring successful implementation of inclusive education in Ghana, the researchers explain that measures have been put in place. They explain that:

...part of the efforts towards shifting to inclusive education from 2015, the Division of Special Education (DSE), USAID/EQUALL, Tertiary Education, University of Education Winneba and the University of Cape Coast have reviewed the 3year Teacher Training Diploma Basic Education Curriculum to include full courses in special education needs (p. 121)

In my view, the debate of inclusive and segregation is very important because the debate brings issues of concern from both sides of the divide into focus. But, my position is that, whether inclusive or segregation should be the matter of choice and that this choice should come from parents together their children who are having disabilities. But, the most important role that the government and the other stakeholders who are involved in the provision of quality education for all children can play in my view is to resource these two educational systems in order to provide the best of education for children with disabilities irrespective of where the child with disability is enrolled. The next section of the chapter presents the structure of the study.

1.6 The structure of the thesis

The study is organized into seven chapters. Chapter one presents the introduction, goal and significance of the study, the research problem as well as the statement of the problem. Again, it presents the concept of segregation and inclusive education, the views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from global perspective, and the views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from the Ghanaian context. It also looks at the views of advocates for the education of children with disabilities in the inclusive context from global perspective and the views of advocates for the education of children with disabilities in the inclusive context from the Ghanaian context. The chapter concludes with the structure of the study.

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13 Chapter two presents historical background of basic education in Ghana, the aims of national curriculum for basic education in Ghana, the nature of basic school curriculum in Ghana and the historical perspective of special education in Ghana after independence. The chapter further presents inclusive education policy in Ghana and the main drivers of the policy such as the curriculum, professional development, assessment and transition programmes. Chapter three presents the research methodology used in the study. The chapter elaborates the reasons for the selection of the research design and the methods in the quest of answering the research questions. The sections of the chapter are presented as follows: research strategy, the research site and access, population, sampling procedure, methods for data collection, and data analysis. The chapter further presents reflexivity, trustworthiness, ethical issues and ends with the challenges of the field work.

Chapter four discusses the concepts and the theories used in the study. It presents the

overview of the concept of visual impairments, and some aspects of Critical Disability Theory (CDT) and Attachment Theory. Chapter five presents the findings from the data collection process in relation to the interaction of children with visual impairments in the classroom for all. Under this chapter the following themes are presented: varied teaching strategies,

exclusion, stigmatization and teasing, inadequate teaching and learning materials, and insufficient trained special needs teachers.

Chapter six of the study presents the analysis and the discussion of the findings that has been presented in chapter five. The study investigates the interaction of children with visual impairments in the classroom for all. The chapter analyses and discusses the findings based on these main themes; varied teaching strategies, exclusion, stigmatization/teasing, inadequate teaching and learning materials, and insufficient trained special needs education teachers that emerged from the data collection process. Critical disability theory which is based on the social model of disability and attachment theory are the main theoretical frameworks that are used in the analysis and the discussion of the findings of the study. The last chapter is chapter seven which presents the conclusion and the recommendations of the study. The ensuing section presents chapter two of the study which looks at the contextual overview of basic education in Ghana.

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2 Chapter two (Contextual overview of basic education in Ghana)

2.1 Introduction

As the study investigates the interaction of children with visual impairments in the classroom for all at the basic school level in the Ghanaian context, it is imperative to look at the

background of basic education in Ghana. In line with this, the chapter presents historical background of basic education in Ghana, the aims of national curriculum for basic education in Ghana, the nature of basic school curriculum in Ghana and the historical perspective of special education in Ghana after independence. The chapter further presents inclusive education policy in Ghana and the main drivers of the policy such as the curriculum,

professional development, assessment and transition programmes. The ensuing section of the chapter presents historical background of basic education in Ghana.

2.2 Historical background of basic education in Ghana

Research has demonstrated that the various governments of the Republic Ghana have shown interest in the education of children in the nation. In line with this claim, Agbenyega (2007) writes that “the government of Ghana since independence regards education as a fundamental human right for all its citizens and it has enshrined this right in the Legal Framework of Education” (pp. 41-42). According to the writer the Education Act of 1961 is the main legislation that concerns the right to education for all children in the country. Based on this Act, Ghana Education Service (GES, 2004, p. 2) contends that “every child who has attained the school going age as determined by the Minister shall attend a course of instruction as laid down by the Minister in a school recognised for the purpose by the Minister”.

In addition to the 1961 Education Act which emphasises the right of education to all children in the country, the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana also lays emphasis and support for education as a basic right for all children in the country irrespective of individuals’

circumstances. Article 38 (2) of the constitution of the Republic of Ghana states that “the government shall within two years after parliament first meets after coming into force of this constitution draw up a programme for the implementation within the following ten years for

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15 the provision of a free, compulsory universal basic education” (Government of Ghana (GOV), 1992, p. 40).

In line with the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) programme, the Ghana Education Service (2003) also explains that the ten year policy programme that emerged from the 1992 constitution of the nation will increase educational access to all children in the country. According to Ghana Education Service (2003) the policy has three main themes, namely:

 Improving quality of teaching and learning

 Improving management efficiency

 Increasing access and participation

In order to sustain the FCUBE programme the government of Republic of Ghana has also put in place other initiatives. In support of this the Ministry of Education (2005) cited in

Agbenyega (2007) argues that “the most recent policy initiative is the Capitation Grant. This policy, which provides free feeding programme for vulnerable children in deprived settings, is to reinforce the existing FCUBE policy of attracting and retaining children in school” (p. 42).

To buttress this point MoE (2013) argues that the government of Ghana through the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service has adopted and implemented policies geared towards the realisation of the universal primary education for all, over the years. According to the ministry, the policies were intended towards the achievement of the Millennium

Development Goals.

In view of this different initiatives such as the FCUBE, Girl-Child Education, School Feeding Programme, Capitation Grant and Free School Uniforms were designed to encourage school enrolment, retention and completion. With respect to these policy initiatives, the writer argues that though they are good policies to support the education of the country at the basic level but Ghana as a nation even though is endowed with natural resources such as gold, cocoa and timber does not have the financial capacity to implement its educational programmes. The author states that the country relies heavily on international donor support and technical assistance from countries like Canada, Japan and Germany among others to implement its educational policies. The writer further iterates that the funds from these donor communities are still not enough in meeting the demands for comprehensive quality education in the country. Sayed et al. (2000) argue that the success attained demonstrate long-term challenges

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in access, retention and quality of education for all children, particularly for children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments due to lack of professional development activities for teachers, ineffective monitoring system and limited resources provided to schools. The next section of the chapter presents aims of national Curriculum for basic education in Ghana.

2.3 Aims of national curriculum for basic education in Ghana

Ghana as a nation in the west coast of Africa has made use of a common curriculum at the basic level for both regular and special education needs right from independence in 1957. At the basic education level for instance, both special and regular schools use the same national curriculum with some changes for the students in segregated schools (Gadagbui, 1998). From the perspective of Ministry of Education Youth and Sports (2004) the goal of the basic education curriculum in Ghana is to ensure that all citizens no matter their social status or ability become functionally literate and productive in order to compete well in the competitive global economy. The ensuing section of the chapter presents the nature of the basic school curriculum in Ghana.

2.4 The nature of the basic school curriculum in Ghana

It is has been asserted that the general curriculum used in schools at the basic level in Ghana does not take into account the diverse nature of the children in the classroom to enable all the children irrespective of their circumstances to benefit from the teaching and the learning process. This situation is not in line with the goal or the aim of the national curriculum which is to provide equal platform as far as the delivery of quality basic education is concerned to all children in the country on matter their circumstances in order for them to become functionally literate and productive so as to be able to cope or compete successfully in an increasingly global competitive economy. Avoke et al. (1999) note that in Ghana the curriculum guidelines that are provided by the Curriculum Research Development Division (CRDD) of the Ghana Education Service (GES) show the general and specific guidelines for children’s education at the basic level that is from ages six to fifteen years.

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17 They argue again that the subject syllabi clearly indicate both general and specific objectives of what teachers and students have to go through at each stage of their education but those guidelines do not make room for addressing diversity of learning needs in the classroom for all. In line with this observation, the Ministry of Education Youth and Sports (MOEYS, 2004) posits that children with special needs are not able to benefit from the general national curriculum due to the fact that the curriculum does not provide the necessary support for children with special educational needs like children with visual impairments. It is therefore important that the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Ghana Education Service (GES) adhere to the guidelines of UNESCO (1994) which explains that curricula should be adapted to the needs of children and as a results schools should therefore provide curricula opportunities to cater for children with different abilities and interests in the classroom for all.

The next section of the chapter presents the history of special educational needs in Ghana after independence.

2.5 The history of special educational needs in Ghana after independence

According to Avoke et al. (1999) when Ghana gained independence from the British colonial rule, the first president of the nation Dr. Osaagyefo Kwame Nkrumah showed his commitment for the education and well being of children with disabilities like children with visual impairments and their families. In accordance with the first president’s interest in the education of children with disabilities in the country, McWilliam (1962) cited in Avoke et al.

(1999, p. 49) explains that: “in 1960 Dr. Osaagyefo Kwame Nkrumah appointed Sir John Wilson the then Secretary of the Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind in England to form a committee to advise the country on educational needs of children with disabilities”.

Although Avoke et al. (1999) argue that nothing prudent came out from the committee’s recommendations, but the initiatives from the committee and other committees led to the establishment of special schools like the school for the blind for children with disabilities in Ghana.

Avoke et al. (1999) again note that as a part of the guidelines for the establishment of special schools in Ghana, the Henderson and Hewlett committee of 1962 submitted the following recommendations:

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1. At least one school for the deaf (hearing impaired) in each region to be near a secondary school to facilitate integration at the secondary school level.

2. One special school to be opened near a technical school.

3. One special school to be opened near teacher training college.

4. Education of children with disabilities be part of the main educational system and should be the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and rehabilitation should be the responsibility of the Department of Social Welfare.

5. More special schools should be opened but not until the time when adequate personnel had been trained (p. 49).

But irrespective of the first government of the Republic of Ghana’s commitment to the education of children with disabilities and the guidelines for the establishment of special schools in the country after independence, the schools were faced with challenges. In support of this Avoke et al. (1999) note that: “special schools were beset by many challenges after their inception which to a large extent has effectively eroded the foundation of their establishment” (p. 52). This view seems to be consistent with UNESCO (1994) argument in line with the establishment of special schools in developing countries like Ghana when the body explains that experience has brought into focus that segregation did not make it possible for many children in less developed countries to have access to education. The reason according to the body is mostly as a result of the fact that segregated schools are high cost options which many developing countries do not have the capacity to afford.

Research has highlighted that children with disabilities especially in Ghana do not have the requisite educational support to enhance their learning. From this perspective, MoE (2013) notes that Ghana as a nation has provided two parallel systems of education for the children.

This means that children who do not have disabilities have their education at the regular schools in their communities while their counterparts who have disabilities are educated in a segregated boarding schools located mainly at the urban centres. The Ministry further explains that the facilities in these segregated boarding schools for the education of children with disabilities such as children with visual impairments need significant rehabilitation to make them child friendly.

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19 Again, the Ministry argues that the number of the segregated schools in the country do not increase they remain static and do not expand to cater for the ever increasing population of children with disabilities like children with visual impairments in the country. MoE (2013) writes that “about two percent of the entire population of school going age have some form of disability with the highest proportion of these among those with sight disabilities 28.7

percent” (p. 9). The next section of the chapter presents inclusive education policy in Ghana.

2.6 Inclusive education policy in Ghana

According to Avoke (2005) policy is a document that underpinned by a particular

philosophical orientation. Avoke reiterates that if the vision of a country is in line with the provision of equal educational opportunities for all its citizens, policies are made to reflect these aspirations. The author argues that from 2012 the Special Education Division of the Ghana Education Service has been meeting stakeholders with the aim of developing a

national inclusive education policy. The reason as noted in Harvey (1998) cited in Agbenyega (2007, p. 54) the author notes that “successful inclusive educational practice cannot be

possible without policies to provide clear guidelines and a commitment to the principles of inclusion”.

It is in the direction of this that Agbenyega (2007) advises that for inclusive practices to be successful in Ghana, inclusive policy development should take into consideration issues that are peculiar to the Ghanaian context. The writer further contends that for inclusive education to be workable in the Ghanaian environment, the Ghana Education Service (GES) should first and foremost develop inclusive policies that are separated from the Free Compulsory

Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) policies.

In line with inclusive education philosophy, UNESCO (1994) writes that inclusive schools as a matter of urgency should recognize and respond to different needs of the students and should welcome and accommodate different rates and styles at which children learn and to ensure quality education to all children in the classroom for all through appropriate teaching strategies, organisational arrangements, curricula, resource use and partnerships with their communities. In the domain of Ghana’s Inclusive Education Policy, the Ministry of Education (2013) explains that the 1992 constitution of the Republic of Ghana, the Ghana Shared

Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA), the Education Strategic Plan (ESP, 2010-2020),

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and the Disability Act are the main sources of the policy. The ministry argues that the policy document is based on the premises that every child has the right to learn as a result inclusive schools should create conducive atmosphere by providing the needed resources and the promotion of positive interaction in this educational environment to ensure that every child in this environment benefits from the teaching and the learning process. The Ministry of

Education (2013) again explains that Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is the model on which the policy is expected to deliver quality and equitable education to all children being complemented by Child’s Friendly Schools (CFS). The Ministry further explains that “the policy is also a step towards government commitment to international declarations across the globe to ensure that persons with special educational needs that are of school-going-age are given the opportunity to realize their potentials” (p. 5). The subsequent section of the chapter looks at the policy drivers.

2.6.1 The curriculum

According to MoE (2013) there are key components of the policy that serve as propellers of the policy to ensure its successfulness. The Ministry notes that one of such drivers is the curriculum. According to the Ministry, for the policy to be effective, the curriculum should be flexible and functional and it should take into consideration the cultural background of the children as well as the family and the community values, resources, interest, future goals, aspirations and opportunities. The Ministry Maintains that the national curricula for both the basic and the second cycle institutions should be the same but provisions will be to adapt to the diverse needs of children in the classroom especially children with special educational needs.

In order to identify children with special educational needs in the classroom for all, as early as possible so as to cater for their unique educational needs, the Ministry contends that “regular schools should undertake early identification, referral and intervention through periodic screening of all children /learners. There should be regular monitoring and periodic assessment aimed at improving the child’s circumstances” (p. 18). To make teaching and learning more effective the Ministry argues also that the class size should not be too large in order to ensure effective interaction in the classroom in the form of teacher to students and student to student interaction. In the direction of this MoE (2013) writes that:

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21 In order to make teaching and learning effective and efficient, class size should not exceed 30 students/children for lower primary and 35 for upper primary and Junior High Schools. Mode of examination should be flexible for learners with special needs.

For written examinations, the range of adaptation should include the following:

 Read questions or items to students/children who have reading difficulties.

 Modifying or substituting questions involving visual materials such as diagrams, photographs and maps for the visually impaired.

 Provide Braille versions of question papers for the blind.

 Permitting large print question papers for learners with low vision.

 Permitting candidates to record their answers on tape recorder or word processor where candidate has difficulty in writing.

 Allowing sign language interpreters to sign for the deaf all instructions during the examination (p. 18).

The next section of the chapter presents professional development.

2.6.2 Professional development

MoE (2013) argues that for the policy to be on course and to be sustained there is the need for the professionals in the field to be well prepared and to be equipped with the necessary skills, tools and other resources to aid in the discharging of their professional duties. As far as this policy is concerned, teachers are very instrumental for its sustainability. In view of this the Ministry of Education (2013) states that “teachers should be equipped with the pedagogical skills to meet the needs of children with special needs using child-centred approach” (p. 19).

The ensuing section of the chapter is about assessment.

2.6.3 Assessment

For the policy to be successful it has been discussed that different assessment techniques and instruments should be used to cater for the diverse educational needs of all the children in the classroom. For the purpose of this MoE (2013) discusses that multi-disciplinary assessment procedures should be implemented at all levels of education to cater for the educational needs of all children in the classroom for all. The Ministry iterates that “alternative assessment

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procedures should be adopted in all educational institutions to respond to the diverse needs of all learners” (p. 19). The subsequent section of the chapter looks at transitional programmes.

2.6.4 Transition programmes

It is appropriate to ensure that children especially children with special educational needs are successfully transitioned from one level to the other. It is in this vein that the Ministry of Education (2013) argues that:

Appropriate transition programmes should be available to all students and in

particular to those with special educational needs to transit from one level to another more successfully. Transition programmes shall be integral to education system and emphasizes through the school counselling programme. Additionally, there must be transitional market-oriented vocational programmes to prepare students with special educational needs for the world of work. Transitional programmes shall be manned by professional trained individuals who shall guide students with special educational needs to make the transition. Transition programmes shall be monitored and well resourced to foster efficiency and effectiveness (p. 19).

It has been argued that when the transition programmes are well resourced and monitored it will go a long way in support of the education of children with special educational needs in every level of their education. The next section presents chapter three of the study which is about the methodology.

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3 Chapter three (Methodology)

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research methodology used in the study. Methodology is a process of collecting data with the aim of answering research questions. Creswell (2003) notes that research methodology is a form of strategy which is used in research work for the purpose of connecting methods to outcomes. The chapter elaborates the reasons for the selection of the research design and the methods in the quest of answering the research questions. The sections of the chapter are presented as follows: research strategy, the research site and access, population, sampling procedure, methods for data collection, and data analysis. The chapter further presents reflexivity, trustworthiness, ethical issues and ends with the

challenges of the field work. The next section of the chapter presents research strategy.

3.2 Research strategy

It has been argued that the choice of research strategy for a particular study is based on the researchers’ worldview with regards to reality and the acquisition of knowledge. Based on the researcher’s orientation, quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods or other emerging strategies such as transformative, pragmatic among others could be used in a study. In line with this Mertens (2015) writes that “researchers make methodological choices based on their assumptions about reality and the nature of knowledge that are either implicitly present or explicitly acknowledge” (p. xviii). According to Bryman (2012) research strategy “is a general orientation to the conduct of social research” (p. 715).

Bryman (2012) makes a distinction between quantitative and qualitative strategies. The writer explains that quantitative research is a type of research strategy that stress on the

quantification in the collection and analysis of data. The researcher argues that as a research strategy it uses deductive approach and emphasizes the testing of hypothesis and incorporates the practices and norms of the natural science model of positivism in particular and views social reality as an external objective reality. For qualitative strategy Bryman (2012) argues that the strategy uses words instead of numbers as in the case of quantitative research in the collection and analysis of data. The writer argues that qualitative strategy as a research

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strategy is interpretive, constructionism and inductive and concepts and theories emerge from the data. Bryman (2012) writes that there is more considerably to the quantitative and

qualitative distinction than this comparism.

On mixed methods strategy Bryman (2012) argues that it is “a term that is increasingly employed to describe research that combines the use of both quantitative research and qualitative research” (p. 713). In addition to this Godwill (2015) explains that “mixed research is a general type of research in which quantitative and qualitative methods, or other paradigm characteristics are mixed together in one overall study” (p. 15).

In this study, I chose qualitative research strategy. The reason for the selection of this research strategy stems from the fact that I wanted to generate rich data that is based on the context of the study and to understand the stories of the informants through their own social context. In relation to this Burns (2000) writes that:

Qualitative forms of investigation tend to be based on a recognition of the importance of the subjective, experiential “life world” of human beings. The task of the qualitative methodologist is to capture what people say and do as a product of how they interpret the complexity of their world to understand events from the viewpoints of the

participants. It is the life world of the participants that constitutes the investigative field (pp. 11-12).

In support of this Mertens (2015) explains that in qualitative research the researcher lays emphasis on the total social context that the researcher undertakes the research work to enable readers to make decision as to the transferability of the study’s results to their own situations.

Nevertheless, Abercrombie (1988) cited in Burns (2000) argues that “social science research can never be objective because of the subjective perceptions of those involved, both informant and researcher; because all propositions are limited in their meaning to a particular language context and particular social group; because all researchers impose unwittingly their own value judgements and because all observations are theory laden” (P. 388). Due to the

subjectivity nature that is characterised qualitative research other researchers have questioned the credibility of qualitative study.

Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

Daniel Yaw Acheampong

Master Thesis

Master of Philosopy in Special Needs Education Department of Special Needs Education

Faculty of Educational Sciences UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

June 2018

Interaction with Children with Visual Impairments in the Classroom for All

A study conducted at one of the classroom’s for all in the Ghanaian context.

Abstract

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations and acronyms

Table of contents

1 Chapter one (Introduction to the study)

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The goal and significance of the study

1.3 Research problem

1.4 Statement of the problem

1.5 The concept of segregation and inclusive education

1.5.1 Views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from global perspective.

1.5.2 Views of researchers in support of segregated education for children with disabilities from Ghanaian context.

1.5.3 Views of advocates for the education of children with disabilities in the inclusive context from global perspective

1.5.4 Views of advocates for inclusive education for children with disabilities from Ghanaian context.

1.6 The structure of the thesis

2 Chapter two (Contextual overview of basic education in Ghana)

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Historical background of basic education in Ghana

2.3 Aims of national curriculum for basic education in Ghana

2.4 The nature of the basic school curriculum in Ghana

2.5 The history of special educational needs in Ghana after independence

2.6 Inclusive education policy in Ghana

2.6.1 The curriculum

2.6.2 Professional development

2.6.3 Assessment

2.6.4 Transition programmes

3 Chapter three (Methodology)

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research strategy