Pictures on the cover:
Left corner up: Jessica Kiil, Right corner up: Hannah Kvam Left corner down: Haddy N’jie Right corner down: Busi Ncube
Pictures from the internet
To my baby Xiluva May you never be a guest, No matter where life takes you to.
A munhu i munhu hikota ya vanhu kuloni.1
Thank you!
Thank you to all those who have supported me through these two years of studying, especially to my beloved daughter, Hedda Xiluva, for her support, her pride in me, and her patience.
Together we made it!
I want to especially thank my supervisor, Knut Kjeldstadli who has taught me lessons of humanism, humility and who has guided me through this journey. I highly appreciate the discussions we have had through the process. Without him, this study would have never been finished.
Thank you to Stan Hawkins, from the Department of Musicology, for guiding me on the definition this study, and for our insightful discussions.
I humbly thank my informants for their availability and enthusiasm.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my family, relatives, friends and colleagues, both in Norway, in Mozambique and elsewhere who have encouraged and assisted me in all imaginable manners.
1 A Van’hu/Bantu philosophy (known as Wu mun’hu/ Ubuntu), according to which an individual exists because of the other people (community).
Index
Title Page
Chapter 1: Are they there? 01
Introduction 01
Relevance of study 02
Background and choice of informants 03
Norway and Immigration – a Historical Perspective 07
Who is the immigrant? 08
Integration, Multiculturalism and Diversity 11
The Policies: Integration and Multiculturalism 12
Multiculturalism 13
Multiculturalism policy index 13
MCP index and Norway 15
Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) 16
MPC and MIPEX, a comparison 17
Multiculturalism or Diversity? 18
Immigration policies 19
Ethnicity 20
Female African Musician
Who is African? 24
Popular Musicians 25
Positivism 26
Successful musicians 27
Gender and forms of capital 29
Methodology and sources 31
Summary of chapters 32
Chapter II: Music, institutions and programs 34
A look into existing bodies 34
Member based organizations
Norwegian Musicians Union 36
Numbers and representation 39
Access to information about the organization 40
Membership as a form of capital 40
Exposure 41
Summarizing 41
Samspill International Music Network 42
Access to information about the organization 43
Membership as form of capital 43
Summarizing 45
Funding programs for musicians
Arts Council Norway 46
Mosaikk program 47
Some numbers 50
Access to information 51
Is getting money from NK a form of capital? 51
Summarizing 52
Fund for sound and image 53
Access to information 53
Capital 53
Fund for performing artists 54
Access to information 55
Capital attached to FFUK grants? 55
Culture fund of Oslo municipality 56
Competitions
Queen Sonja music competition 57
Information about the competition 58
Winning and capital 58
Princess Astrid music prize 58
Access to information 59
Winning and capital 59
Telenor Culture prize 59
Honor prize of the Norwegian Arts Council 60
Capital 60
Spellemanns prize 61
Summarizing 61
A change? 62
Grants
The state grants for artists 63
Grants and capital 64
Events 64
Performances and capital 65
Festivals
Oslo world music festival 66
Mela festival 66
Afrikan history week festival 66
Festival performance and capital 67
Institutions
Rikskonsertene 68
Capital related to working with Rikskonsertene? 69
Conclusion 69
Chapter 3: Who are they 72
Busisiwe Ncube: 72
Personal background 72
Music 73
Music in Norway 73
Integration 74
On ethnicity and music 74
Gender – on being a woman 74
Interpreting Busi 75
Capital 76
A successful musician? 78
Jessica Kiil (LPJ/La petite Jessica) 79
Background 80
The beginning 82
Music in Norway 84
On career 85
Jobs 88
On codes 89
On Exoticism 89
Fitting 91
Building up a network 91
Interpreting Jessica Kiil 92
A successful musician? 96
Hannah Kvam 97
Origin 98
Music 99
I, Woman 100
The exotic element 100
Queendom: Production of an album
Genre and market 100
Having an album 101
Funding 101
The industry 102
Touring and performance 102
On network 103
Market and quota programs 103
On acting in a production at Nasjonaltheatret 104
On outfit and exoticism 105
Finances 106
Reading Hannah Kvam 106
Capital 107
Exoticism 108
A successful musician? 108
Haddy N’jie 109
Identity 110
Music 110
Music industry 111
Quota system 112
Performances 113
Interpreting Haddy N’jie 114
Capital 115
Music and finances 116
The industry 116
Quota system and quality 116
A successful musician? 117
Chapter IV: Conclusion
Information 123
Challenges, capital, threshold and dilemmas 124
Women, African and musicians – they are there! 126
Bibliography
Annex A: Table on Spellemanns prize Annex B: Grants for Professional Artists Annex C: Interview guide for informants
Annex D: Interview guide for people working with institutions
Foreword
In 2004, when I moved to Norway, from Mozambique, I had my life very well planned. I moved to Norway for family reunion, to my Norwegian.
We were both in our twenties, and had the future ahead of us. Being an independent working woman, I was sure the process of integration in Norway would be smooth. We calculated that it would take me about two years to get to learn the language, and work within culture projects. Besides, I was a very flexible hard working person, it would be easy. After all I spoke five languages and had lived and worked abroad before.
Once in Norway And despite my commitment, I was not feeling part of the society, especially when professionally. Was there any veiled discrimination?
At the same time, a social network was difficult for me to establish, both with Norwegians and Africans. I eventually changed strategies and through a volunteer work, I got a stimulating job with a festival. By then I had become a mother, whilst my marriage had deteriorated.
After 6 years of persistence as a musician in Norway I started to get doors opened.
Sometimes, by the same people who had turned me off years before! I was
astonished! I realized that it had taken me 7 years to learn the codes and the “who was who” in the music field in Norway.
If in one hand separation and rethinking of my life was allowing me to invest more in music in Norway, certainly knowing better the country at its rules, allowed me knock the ”appropriate” doors, using the ”correct” language, and through the
”right” people.
This new context in which I rather suddenly found myself in was the
foundation of the therapy post-divorce. Amidst my despair, there were my child and my music, keeping me alive, and giving me joy. The gigs started coming, and soon enough I was invited to share a cheaper facility for rehearsals, in a permanent basis.
This got me thinking. I started wondering whether I was alone in such a situation.
Whether there was a pattern. I looked around, searching for other women in my situation: who had moved to Norway as adults, who were working as musicians. That is how I came to choosing this theme for my master degree.
CHAPTER I: Are they there?
Introduction
This study is about presence of female musicians with African background in Norway (2000-2010), and their music careers. It focuses on gender and
immigration/integration within music in Norway – and more concretely those of Africans. I think that it is important that Africans in the Diaspora themselves become active in the quest of understanding their social environment, and that they gain a voice. For me the uniqueness of this study lies on the fact that I am of African background, and am, therefore, studying an object that is familiar to me.
Starting questions included the following:
1) Whether there have been female musicians with African background in Norway?
If the answer is “yes”, then
2) Where have they been in terms of visibility?
3) How was the process of their integration into the mainstream music landscape?
4) Were there social, economical, emotional, institutional (and other) professional challenges specific to her, due to her background of immigrant and to her condition of a woman?
5) May main question is: How did an African, especially a female musician, integrated into society as artists, and thus develop successful career?2
The starting point was the assumption that a male music professional, naturally integrated to society by birth (being born from two ethnic Norwegian parents) had challenges that were different from those faced by a female counterpart, with a
“natural”, maybe a biological connection with Africa, or another immigrant background. Ethnic background and gender may have had an impact on an
individual’s career development in Norway. It is this set of challenges that I intended to look closer at. I hope to find answers to these questions.
Gender element, social tags like “immigrant”, “ethnic minority”, and more concretely “African” are to be taken into account. It is important to underline the last tag “African”, as it seems to exist a pre-conceived image of “Africa” and” African”
in Norway. A search on the newspapers, and an analyse of current in online debates on race and immigration in Norway (2000-2010) can give an idea of this statement.
The aim of this thesis is:
2 Significant or successful career will be defined throughout this study according to the elements what are part of a music career. I have called these elements “criteria of success”.
i) To investigate into and to contribute to the understanding of the politics and dynamics of integration facing female musicians of African background, within a Norwegian context.
With this study I seek to contribute towards:
a) Setting a focus on eventual dilemmas facing female artists with immigrant background to Norway
b) A better understanding of the impact of the policies and programs of integration in Norway for musicians and artists in general, as well as to possibly come with
contributions;
c) A better understanding of cultural policies and programs and their impact on musicians with immigrant background.
Relevance
In my opinion this study is relevant as it brings up a relatively actual issue, which is the professional integration and unfolding of minorities groups into society, their challenges throughout the process and their visibility as role models. I think that it is important for individuals, especially the youth to see examples of success coming from people they can relate to. The population with immigrant background in Norway is augmenting, both by people moving into Norway and by birth. My hope is that the new generations, especially those who are born in Norway can develop their career from an equal point of start as the “ethnic” Norwegians.
By highlighting the challenges and successes that other women with African background have had, I hope to shed a light on to the world of the music industry and thus inspire the new comers to understand and play by the rules. This works also for those who move to Norway as adults.
Background and choice of informants
Norway is a changing society. Cross-border movements have increased in the past decades, which has had an impact on the homogeneity of society. This has brought challenges both for those who arrived to the communities, and those who initially constituted these communities. This study has a time spam of 10 years, from 2000 to 2010. This time frame was conceived taking into account the fact that there have been changes in the country regarding visibility of immigrants, and respective increase on public and political debates on questions strictly related to immigration. There have
also been designed and implemented policies of immigration and of integration. The culture field was marked by the set of policies known as “Kulturløftet”.3
I am aware that this time span is very recent. This is history in the making, unfinished processes that are unfolding at the moment of this study. Like I said before, these processes are of my interest as they seem to be part of wider social changes related to people’s mobility, through which they move from their original communities, to newer countries where they settle, live, work, raise families and interact with others, including the local majorities. In Norway, academic thinking and policies adopted to meet these social changes have been multiculturalism and cultural diversity, which we I will present later. Consequences of immigration include
challenges to traditional concepts as diverse as those of nation, professional opportunities, access to resources, and as a matter of fact, what people listen to.
The year of 2008 was denominated “year of cultural diversity”4 in Norway, inspired by Swedish Mangkulturåret in 2006; through this year activities and programs were promoted, aiming at safeguarding cultural diversity as a positive aspect of social development.5 Various forms of cultural and artistic presentations were promoted, as well as debates and projects were carried on, with the objective of stimulating a culturally diverse society in the country. Strengths and weaknesses of this program have been discussed in the report by Bente G Møller. One of the points that was raised was the limitation of this project in terms of duration. Projects implemented, series of concerts taken in into account were in most cases limited to the year 2008. There was a lack of continuity in massively promoting a culturally diverse Norway.
At the beginning I intended to have five female informants to this study. The universe of female musicians with African background seems to be a minority within minorities6, and hence the universe for selecting the informant was relatively limited.
Of a list of 8 possible interviewees, I have collected four interviews. The process of reaching the interviewees was interesting on itself, as some people never answered the request through the email, nor the telephone calls. Two of the women worked with
3 It is a ten-years (2004-2014) Culture lifting policy in Norway. Kulturløftet is the government shared priorities for Norwegian cultural policy. Culture Promotion emphasizes cultural status as social and policy area.
It is composed by 17 priority areas that are to give a big boost to Norwegian culture. By 2014, one percent of the state budget shall be allocated in culture. The Government's vision is for Norway to be a leading nation of culture that emphasizes culture in all parts of society. Culture minister Trond Giske was very committed to this policy.
4 Mangfoldsåret, in Norwegian.
5 Møller, Bente Guro, Rapport Med forbehold om endringer, Kultur og Kirkedepartement, 2009,pg 11.
6 I know 16 female musicians with African background in Norway, including myself.
managers. One of the managers answered saying that the artist was not interested, as she had participated in several studies about Black women musicians in Norway, nor had she time to participate; the other manager never emails, phone calls and short text messages (sms). More details about artists and contact well be seen in the introduction of chapter three. This process of getting female musicians to be my informants made me raise questions about the sense of African-ness among some artists with an immigrant background, and about the power that managers hold.
This thesis includes four interviews to an equal number of female informants with African background. All four consider themselves Africans, they themselves identify as Africans, even if only to a certain degree, for example as a result of having never lived in an African country. They also have in common the age element, they are all over 30 years old, and the fact that they have lived and worked in Norway. Each of them represents a type of woman in their relationship with Norway. While one was born in Norway, from a Norwegian mother and a Ghanaian father, one was born in Ethiopia and raised in Norway with her Norwegian family, another one moved to Norway without previous knowledge of the country, while the last one of them had been visiting Norway for almost ten years before she decided to settle in the country.
Busisiwe Ncube, from Zimbabwe, moved to Norway as an adult, to family reunion with her fiancé. Before that, she had been working as a musician, and even visiting Norway several times. By the time of the interview she worked as a musician 100%, touring and teaching. She represents the female musicians with African background who have a professional career prior to moving to Norway.
I propose to understand how Busisiwe entered the “Norwegian” music world as a permanent resident in the country, differently from her regular work visits to Norway.
I have a theory according to which music landscape in Norway is divided in two: the Norwegian, high schooled professionals and b) the Norway based foreign musicians, who most of the time have no formal training in music. The last group tends to appeal to an audience that is interested in “afrikansk”, “søramerikansk”, “indianermusikk”, not no the public in general. Media may have a noticeable role in perpetuating these tags. The point is that there can be a question of tastes related to where the music roots are from, and whether it appeals to the mainstream audience in Norway.
What is interesting about some of the musicians with heritage from elsewhere than Norway, is the fact that previous to settling in Norway, they had well established careers, and in some cases, it was through work as musicians, that they got in contact
with Norway in the first place. It seems to be like they are overrepresented within the touring musicians, under the auspice of Rikskonsertene’s program of exposing musics from the world to Norway.7 In other words, they may play a role of perpetuating the tag of ambassadors of the “exotic” (music).
I hope to be able to find out how encounter of Busisiwe and Norway was.
Compared to her career before settling in Norway, how often does she perform? What have the challenges been? To analyze these questions I propose indicators of success, which will be introduced later.
Hannah Wozene Kvam, born in Ethiopia, raised in Norway, to a (white) Norwegian family. Stage comedian, singer, columnist, slum poet. Member of Queendom group, which released the first album in April 2012. Hanna represented the generation that being of two African parents, born in an African country, were raised in Norway by two Norwegian parents, for example through adoption.
Hannah was interviewed as herself, but sometimes she became the voice of Queendom, especially when it came to their common experiences as a female arts collective. I chose to only have her from the collective for fear of making this study one that is focused more on Queendom than on the individual experience. However I do hope that this collective will soon get their history studied written and published.
Jessica Kiil8, from Congo, moved to Norway as by the age of 20. She sings, and has released four albums, recorded several videos. She has had to keep side jobs in order to make ends meet. At the time of the interview Jessica lived in the west side of Oslo, where the wealthy and maybe most conservative people live. She has had several accounts of racism from the streets of Oslo, which were broadly documented by the press9.
As a single mother of three children, I propose a close-in look to her challenges.
What professional network did she count on as a mother and an Artist? How did she experience the press of being “exotic” in order to be exposed as a musician? Jessica represents the female artist who has young children to raise, bills to pay and a music
7 Although numbers were not available at Rikskonsertene, that would discriminate whether the world musician touring schools under their program is based or not in the country, most African musicians I spoke with during the process of this study, had at one time or another taken part in these tours.
8 Has since our last interview registered back her family name. This is relevant as it takes us to the question of (re)claiming identity.
9 For example at http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.7911933
career to follow. She may also represent the young women who first discover their talent and have to learn the rules of the business in order to make it as musicians.
Again we will borrow from the indicators of success that we will present further.
Haddy N’jie Born in 1979, she is a singer, guitarist, newspaper columnist and TV producer/presenter. Born from a Norwegian mother and a Gambian father, she grew up in Oslo.
She represents the artists that have both African and Norwegian heritage. How did she articulate these two cultural identities? Further, it is interesting to see how she considers music a side career, as she is a fulltime journalist.
Again indicators of success will tell us more the development of her career.
Norway and immigration – a historical perspective
Although the presence of Africans in Norway can be dated 400 years back10, it is the modern times migration that has been our focus, and it is in this modern times that migration to Norway has increased in terms of numbers and national representation.
According to historian Knut Kjeldstadli11, modern times migration to Norway can be divided into three waves that sometimes overlap each other:
a) 1960-1975, when Norwegian borders were opened for foreign labour until this migration wave was stopped through legislation: Male individuals are the majority of these labour migrants. African countries of origin of labour migrants to Norway include citizens from Gambia, Ghana, Cape Verde.12
b) 1975 to today, when borders of the country were closed for labour migrants.
Although initially this closure of the borders was meant to be for one year, it was extended, and eventually made permanent. On the other side migration to Norway allowed for international students who eventually established themselves in the country after conclusion of studies, for specialized labour, as well as for labour migrants from the European Economic Area (EEA)13 to settle in the country. At this time, as the country opened for family reunion, and as a consequence, Norway saw a
10 Yacoub Cisse, interview, 14.09. 2011, Oslo.
11 Kjeldstadli, K (ed) 2003
12 A few political exile seekers from African countries arrive in this time.
13 Det Europeisk Økonomisk Samarbeidsområde, (EØS) in Norwegian is an economic area comprising the 27 states members of the European Union and Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
growing number of female individuals coming to the country, on the ground of family reunion. Here we include female migrants (and male, obviously) coming to marry Norwegian citizens. Examples of family reunion between foreign citizens and Norwegians within music can African-American world class singers Anne Brown (1912-2009) and Ruth Ann Reese ((1921-1990), who established themselves in Norway and married Norwegian citizens.
c) Around 1980 to today, where a growing number of refugees and exile seekers, reach Norway. From Africa, the major groups of refugees and asylum seekers come from Somalia,14 Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi, South Africa and Uganda. The direct effect of this wave was the establishment of larger groups of people with a common background (language, history, culture, etc), which in a way enabled them to become visible, though not always positively.
Who is the immigrant?
Defining “immigrant” in Norway has always been problematic. In one hand there are those who are physically alike the Norwegians, and whom their next generation may not bear any visible traces of their coming from another culture, while on the other hand there are those who are raised by two Norwegian parents, and therefore identify with the Norwegian culture, but do have a physical traces that are different from that of their Norwegian parents, as for example skin color.
Up to 1993 Statistics Norway (SSB) defined immigrants as a) persons born abroad and b) foreign citizens. Thus, children who were born abroad to Norwegian parents were considered to be immigrants. So were the children adopted by
Norwegian families. At the same time, children were born in Norway to foreign-born parents were omitted in this group. This last one would not be a major problem except that, as the group of children born to foreign parents grew up in age and in numbers there was a visible need to address the concrete challenges the group had in terms of participation in society. While their challenges were no longer the same as those of their immigrated parents, they had specific challenges different from those facing their peers born from Norwegian parents. In other words, in creating a definition of immigrant based on citizenship, all those of a foreign descent, yet born in Norway were left out, as they gradually were becoming Norwegians citizens.
14http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/AID/publikasjoner/rapporter_og_planer/2009/R_somaliere_i_Nor ge.pdf (13.05.2012)
The shortcomings of both "foreign nationals" and "foreign-born" led to the parents' country of birth to be included in the definition of immigrants. In 1994, SSB published a standard for immigrant classification.15 This standard defines that the Immigrant population included persons with two foreign-born parents. The immigrant population included first-generation immigrants, who have physically moved and settled in Norway, and a second-generation immigrants, who were born in Norway of two foreign-born parents.
However, in the year of 2004, newer definitions were adopted, in order to be even more inclusive. According to Statistics Norway16 innvandrerbefolkging (immigrant population) is juridically considered to be related to citizenship. The problem with this definition of immigrant population surges then when a significant percentage of people who bear a different citizenship than Norwegian acquire the Norwegian citizenship, they may not be considered immigrants any longer. However their experience as comers to Norway in this case, would possibly still be related to their moving to the country from another place. Since the year 2004, SSB proposes two definitions that is more inclusive.
a) First generation immigrants, førstegenerasjonsinnvandrere: Are those people born abroad with two foreign-born parents. First generation immigrants have at one time immigrated to Norway. Persons born in Norway of two foreign-born parents are persons born in Norway of two parents born abroad (norskefødte a to utenlandske foreldre), who also has four grandparents born abroad. At this point, the immigrant population is the sum of the two preceding groups, and includes people who have two foreign-born parents, or more precisely: People with no parent or grandparent who was born in Norway. Immigrant population thus includes first- generation immigrants and persons born in Norway of two foreign-born parents.
b) Persons (or people) with immigrant background (personner med innvandrerbakgrunn) is a definition that includes a larger group of people than the previous. This category includes
- First generation immigrants without Norwegian background - Persons born in Norway of two foreign-born parents
- Foreign Adoptions
15 Statistics Norway, 1994.
16 Statistikk Sentralbyrå, or SSB in Norwegian
- Foreign-born with one Norwegian-born parent - Norwegian-born with one foreign-born parent - Birth Abroad of Norwegian-born parents
This last immigrant category refers to various definitions of persons with
immigration background. Besides the groups mentioned under "Immigrants" there are
"people without immigration", who also constitute a group. The country of birth is mainly maternal residence at the person's birth. Country background is individual, although sometimes can be mother, or father's birth country as well. Persons without immigration background have only Norway as their background country. When both parents are born abroad, they are in most cases born in the same country. In cases where parents have different native country, it is thus mother's country of birth that is taken into account17.
According to the Central Bureau for Statistics in Norway18, the presence of immigrants in the country has raised in numbers during the period 1970-2010. In the year of 1977 Norway was affirmed as an immigration country, with 6600 people establishing in the country. In January the immigrant population was 59 200 people (1,5% of total population); by January of 1990, the immigrant population was of 168 000 people (4% of total population in Norway).
Since this thesis focuses on African women who are considered to be African based on their individual acknowledgement of it (and independently of the degree of their “African-ness” in terms of cultural heritage), the definition of immigrant
population falls outside of this work. It is the definition of Immigrant population that is relevant for this thesis. This is because it includes those who fell African even if they a) were not born in an African country, but in Norway, and those who b) may have been born in an African country, but were raised in Norway by Norwegian parents, and yet their looks and other characteristics have set them under the light of the majority, as part of a minority. These are the cases of Haddy N’jie and Hannah Kvam, respectively.
Table 1.1 people with immigrant background in Norway 2000-2010 Year People of immigrant
background
17 2002, pg 9.
18 http://www.ssb.no/innvandring/ 12.05.2012
2001 505 868 2003 574 609 2006 628 659 2008 716 967 2009 774 044 2010 826 394
Source: Statistics Norway
We can see that numbers of immigrants raise during the ten years of this study (2000-2010), as well as the percentage they represent. Although there were not found numbers that focused specifically in African artists, especially female, and which could show how this group may have behaved in terms of migrating to Norway. But I suppose that as the communities grow, the more artists will be found, both through immigration as in moving and establishing in Norway and among those who are born of African parents, are raised in Norway, and choose to pursuit a career within arts and music.
Integration, multiculturalism and diversity
Since the end of the decade of 1970 and the beginning of 1980’s, the wave of immigration to Norway intensified. According to the report Innvandring og
innvandrere 201019 numbers of people who immigrated to Norway and people born from foreign-born parents in Norway at the beginning of year 2010 were of 460 000 immigrants (almost 9,5 % of total population of Norway), plus 93 000 Norway born people with two immigrant parents. All together, there were around 550 000 people immigrant people (11%of the total population of Norway)20. As we saw ahead, these numbers are not inclusive, as they are only the sum of those a) who are born abroad of foreign parents and b) those born in Norway to two foreign parents. It does not include those who have only one foreign parent (and another Norwegian), nor those who are born abroad but raised by Norwegian parents among others. In other words the numbers do not reflect the entire population with immigrant background.
Table 2.1: Immigrant population in Norway, years 2000, 2004 and 2010.
Year Those who were born in another country
Born in Norway from immigrant parent(s)
Total Percentage
19Henriksen, K, Lars Østby og Dag Ellingsen (red.), 2010 20Idem, pg 10.
2000 N/A* N/A 282000 6,6 %
2004 289 000 348940 Ca 8%
2010 460 000 93 000 553000 Ca 11%
Source: Statistics Norway.
* Not available
The table above shows the tendency of increasing of immigration to Norway. I have chosen to include those of people born to two foreign born parents, as it also is relevant for this study, keeping in mind the fact that the artists we will interview in chapter three who may not be born in Norway, from foreign parents. It is relevant to see that numbers of individuals born in the country from foreign parents have are also in the rise. This is relevant, in my point of view, because this increasing group of people do or will have develop in a different context than that of their parents, and their requirements as well as terms regarding their identity, their rights and
obligations as citizen will be questioned from a different angle than that of their parents.
In my opinion, this wave of immigration and establishing in the country has to be met by policies that make the transition as easy as possible, so that new residents can grow and develop not as “the others” but as citizens with obligations and rights. For our group that this study is focusing on, it is relevant to understand whether there are legal instruments and programs that make this merging possible, to the extent that African female professionals in music can develop their careers under the same terms as their Norwegian counterparts.
We will next see the policies that stimulate integration and absorption of peoples with immigrant background into society in Norway.
The policies: integration and multiculturalism
According to the White Paper Nr. 49 (2003-2004) under the title “Diversity through inclusion and participation - Responsibility, freedom, government” there is a
differentiation between an integration policy21 and a policy of diversity.22 While the Integration policy is aimed at people who have immigrated and aims at making possible that "immigrants will be able to participate in society and to provide for themselves as far as possible";23 Diversity policy is aimed at the entire population:
21 Integreringspolitikk
22 Mangfoldspolitikk
23 White Note nr 49, 2003-2004, pg 34
immigrants, their descendants and the majority population. The diversity policy through inclusion and participation has a broader perspective and is aimed at all citizens in the community. In other words, these are the two main instruments that aim at a society where new comers and their descendents function in Norway as part of the Norwegian society and according to the laws and principles that guide the country. These policies and their differentiation are relevant for this study as one of them can directly influence the integration of artists who moved to Norway as adults, as in the case of Busisiwe Ncube24. On the other hand, the positive implementation of policies of diversity can affect positively artists who grew up in Norway, from one or two foreign parents, who despite the growth in terms of group, are a numeric
minority. This is the case of Hannah Kvam25, who was raised in Norway, studied in the country, and yet has a background of another country than Norway.
Multiculturalism
The White Paper nr 49 (2003-2004), by the Ministry of Local Government and Labour states that Norway is often referred to as a multicultural society. This is in the sense that people have always been composed by elements with different cultural heritage from one another. However, the modern times call for a closer look into society, and to the concepts related to it. For if Norway, for instance has been always been multicultural, the new nations marked by immigration (to which Norway is part), develop a newer face, more complex, more diverse, with people bringing their own cultural manifestations to the “new home”.
According to the White Paper, the Norwegian Government acknowledges that in one hand Norway has always been a multicultural society, but haw now become even more multicultural, due to newer waves of immigration. The multicultural society as a concept can also be used to describe a society that pursues a policy that has multi- cultural aims. This is often called multiculturalism. Linguistic and cultural and religious rights of indigenous peoples and national minorities, respect and active support for minorities as well as a basic positive and encouraging attitude toward cultural differences are values that are promoted in a multicultural society.
Multiculturalism policy index (MCP)
24Chapter 3.
25Chapter 4.
I here bring an instrument that designed to measure and to monitor the
implementation of policies of multiculturalism. The aim is to see to what extent policy makers are responding to the new realities of the countries, of people from other countries are establishing themselves, making it their home, working there and paying taxes, expecting from it the same rights as those of the people who are from that country, and who share the physical cultural and historical heritage of the majority. I intend to see to what extent Norway has adopted policies for multiculturalism and to what extent they have been are implemented.
MCP index is a scholarly research project by the University of Queens in Canada, consisting on monitoring 21 western democracies on their multiculturalism. The project is designed to provide information about multiculturalism policies in a standardized format that aids comparative research and contributes to the
understanding of state-minority relations. However, the comparative element is not relevant at this point, as we just intend to understand whether policies for
multiculturalism are there, and if yes, which ones; we also intend to understand the extent to which these policies have been implemented throughout the time span we are studying. It helps us understand the process of becoming a multicultural society in the Norwegian context, throughout the years. The project provides an index at three points in time - 1980, 2000, 2010 – and for three types of minorities: one index relating to immigrant groups, one relating to historic national minorities, and one relating to indigenous peoples26. What is relevant for us is the index related to immigrant groups, as it will, in a compared context, help us understand where does Norway stand. In turn, this exercise will enable us to situate Norway among the international migratory movement, and understand how much has been done in the field of multiculturalism policies, by the Norwegian government and implementing bodies.
Eight policies and their implementation are analyzed and presented in a table.
They show which countries are more open, and which are not, to multiculturalism:
1. Constitutional, legislative or parliamentary affirmation of multiculturalism;
2. The adoption of multiculturalism in school curriculum;
3. The inclusion of ethnic representation/sensitivity in the mandate of public media or media licensing;
26http://www.queensu.ca/mcp/index.html, last visited 26.08.2012
4. Exemptions from dress-codes, Sunday-closing legislation etc;
5. Allowing dual citizenship.
6. The funding of bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction;
7. Funding for ethnic organizations to support culture;
8. Affirmative action for disadvantaged immigrant groups.
MCP index and Norway
Looking at the table 3.1 below, we can see that Norway scores 3,5 out of 8 points for 2010, and zero (0,0) for the two previous years studied27.
As we can see, Norway scores relatively low (3,5) in terms of legislation and implementation of laws on multiculturalism, even by the year 2010. It is however not so bad, considering that according to the research, 0-3 is low, 3.5-5.5 is significant, while 6-8 is strong. In Scandinavia, Norway is in between, for while Finland scores 6, and Sweden 7, Denmark scores 0 by 2010. In a global perspective, it is Australia who has the highest indicators of multiculturalism policies embracement with 8, followed by Canada with 7.5 in 201028.
MCP index, Norway (1980, 2000, 2010)
Policy Year 1980 Year 2000 Year 2010
Affirmation of multiculturalism 0 0 0
Multiculturalism in schools curriculum 0 0 0.5
Multiculturalism in media mandates/licensing 0 0 0
Exemptions from dress codes 0 0 0.5
Dual citizenship 0 0 0
Funding for ethnic org to support culture 0 0 1
Funding of bilingual education 0 0 1
Affirmative actions 0 0 0.5
Total points 0 0 3.5
Source: http//:www.queensu.ca/mcp/immigrant/evidence/Norway.html 0 = Non existing policy
0,5 = Partially existing policy, partially implemented; or existing police but not implemented 1 = Existing and implemented police
In an international perspective, this index shows that Norway has not a specific policy towards a multicultural society. According to the table, policies of affirmative actions for disadvantaged immigrant groups, exemptions from dress-codes, Sunday-closing legislation and of the adoption of multiculturalism in school curriculum are existing
27Table nr 1. MPC index, Norway: 1980, 2000 2010.
28 http://www.queensu.ca/mcp/immigrant/table/Immigrant_Minorities_Table1.pdf last visited 26.08.2012
policies that are not implemented, or existing policies that are just partially
implemented; Here Norway scores 0,5 points for each, meaning exactly what we just said (partially existing or partially implemented policies).
Out of a total of eight, two policies are approved and implemented, namely the funding of bi-lingual education, and the funding of ethnic organizations to support cultural activities. The final three are not legislated nor approved at all. Here the country scores 0,0 point. So, out of eight (8,0) points, Norway scores 3,5 in the Multiculturalism Policy Index by the year of 2010. Considering that in 2000 Norway had scored 0 points, I see that the country has moved towards multiculturalism, but it can be better.
Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)
MIPEX measures integration policies in all European Union Member States plus Norway, Switzerland, Canada and the USA up to 31 May 2010. Using 148 policy indicators MIPEX creates a multi-dimensional picture of migrants’ opportunities to participate in society by assessing governments’ commitment to integration. By measuring policies and their implementation MIPEX reveals whether all residents are guaranteed equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities.
MIPEX can be used to analyze seven policy areas which shape a legally resident third-country national’s journey to full citizenship. Additionally, the MIPEX examines how policies compare against the standard of equal rights and
responsibilities for migrants. Reveals a given country’s policies rank compared with other countries, does a balance in terms of whether policies are getting better or worse over time, and be used to asses new laws and proposals for specific countries.
The policy areas analyzed through MIPEX are 1)Labor market mobility, 2)family reunion, 3)Education, 4)Political participation, 5)Long term residence, 6)access to nationality and 7) anti-discrimination.
According to MIPEX III, which shows the reading up to May 2010, Norway is one of top ten countries in terms of integration policies in the 31 countries (which are the 27 countries members of the European Union, plus Norway, Switzerland, Canada and USA. Sweden is on top, with 83% of 100%, Norway is in place nr 8, with 63%, Denmark scores 53% and Latvia, at the bottom of the list, scores 31%.
According to this index, Norway is a leading migration country within Europe
and USA and Canada, when it comes to policies of political participation, where the level of equality policies. It is below average on citizenship acquisition policies, as it does not accept double citizenship, and on enforcing discrimination law.
Table 4.1: Migration Integration Policy Index iii (2010)
Policy Percentage MIPEX III (2010) Percentage MIPEX II (2007)
Labour market 73 % 76%
Family reunion 86% 72%
Education 63% n/a*
Political participation 94% n/a
long term residence 61% n/a
Access to nationality 41% n/a
Anti-discrimination 59% n/a
Average Norway 68% N/A
Source: Migrant Policy Index III
* = Not available
MPC and MIPEX, a comparison
While MPC measures the level of legislation and implementation of multicultural polices in the 21 most developed countries, MIPEX measures legislation and implementation of migrant integration in the European Union members (27 countries), independently of their development status, plus Norway, Switzerland, Canada and United States.
MPC measures eight policies; MIPEX measures seven. Of these, two are included in both indexes: dual citizenship, and bilingual education.
While MPC reading place Norway among the average countries when it comes to multicultural policies, MIPEX places Norway among the top ten, except regarding dual citizenship (which Norway does not allow) and polices of anti-discrimination.
Here Norway scores 41 and 59% respectively.29 Among the top ten countries, Norway is number seven, between Denmark and Finland.
These two readings, although different are not contradictory, they read different policies. Where they coincide, they both refer to the challenges Norway faces, especially when it comes to the dual citizenship question.
29 Migrant Integration Policy Index III, 2010, pg 151
As a way of a conclusion, I can say that there are different instruments that measure a country’s health in terms of legislation and implementation. The two indexes above read different aspects of legislation and implementation regarding immigration, integration and multiculturalism. By comparing Norway to other countries they facilitate a contextualized reading, which is important, as migration is a global, not individual phenomenon.
Multiculturalism or cultural diversity?
At this point I find it relevant to look into the different forms of absorbing the
foreigners that are based in the country. The government has created and implemented policies, which are still to be evaluated in terms of their accuracy.
I bring forth the concepts of multiculturalism) versus cultural diversity since they have been used with a certain frequency in the official discourse about immigrants and integration. Multiculturalism was replaced by cultural diversity. Why?
The concept of diversity was introduced as a new perspective of the integration policy context in Report. No. 49.30 Diversity through inclusion and participation.
Mangfold is the Norwegian translation of "diversity" and refers both to the diversity resulting from immigration, and the diversity that comes of individualization and differentiation of values and ways of life in general. These are both characteristics of a complex society as Norway is becoming, as a result of more flexible borders, a higher immigration population, as well as globalization in general, I would say.
Mangfold is widely used in cultural context kulturelle mangfold, cultural diversity. As a matter of fact, the year of 2008 was the year of cultural diversity in Norway. For more details you can read the report on this Mangfoldsåret31.
In other words, while multiculturalism calls for the pacific co-existence of different cultures, side by side, cultural diversity appeals to a society where these different cultures interact with one another. In my opinion, it is such a society that Norway ought to strive to become, where differences don’t just co-exist, but interact for the common interest. In the case of female African musicians, the challenges would be how to ultimately interact with the wide audience, instead of just
performing for “Africans”, or “organisations that work for the interest of Africans”, for instance.
30 2003-2004
31 Bente Møller, 2009: Kultur og-kirkedepartementet
Summarizing: critiques of multiculturalism accuse it of not being an inclusive policy, as it focus on the separate existence of different cultures, however tolerant. It promotes an acceptance of the different without interfering, nor getting to know each other, while cultural diversity stands for a society consisting by different cultures living together, where different people learn about each other, and open themselves for each other, learning and respecting what makes the other different.
Immigration policies
Let us now focus on the topic of this work and the history of immigration to Norway, and look into the policies of immigration in Norway. It was said earlier that
politicians have faced challenges, not only to regulate the numbers of incoming people, but as well as to guide the meeting between Norwegians and their new coming landsmen. We will here focus a little on relevant policies that directly affect our target group, female, or African, or Musicians, or all in one.
In my point of view, the most important policy affecting potential migrant women in general, with no focus to their origin nor qualifications, is the policy according to which people could apply for residence in Norway for the purpose of family reunion. It becomes relevant for women, as according to SSB, seven out of ten who immigrated to Norway for family reunion are women32. In addition to the women coming for family reunion, there has been a visible increase on numbers of women coming from Poland and Sweden, for work. However these are not part of the principal object of this thesis, which are women with African background.
There are not specific policies regarding the immigration of Africans in Norway.
There are, however, follow ups and studies to contribute to a better integration of the Somali community, due to specific challenges faced by this community in terms of integration33. These studies are not directly related to African female musicians in Norway, but are relevant for the understanding the generalised challenges facing Africans and other immigrant groups in Norway, considering that the initial migrants have children born and raised in Norway who are to develop their careers in the country. Furthermore, Africans in Norway are overrepresented in unemployment statistics. This is an indicator that there must be specific challenges or Africans in
32 Henriksen, K, 2010, pg 5.
33http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/AID/publikasjoner/rapporter_og_planer/2009/R_somaliere_i_Norge.pdf (13.05.2012)
Norway than for other groups. According to social anthropologist Thomas Eriksen Hylland, the response of the majority to the new comers will determine the way the newcomers will integrate or not. Hence, it is important that Norway understand the challenges of specific groups, in order to create conditions which can facilitate the integration and better functioning of those moving in to Norway.
And the next important policies for female musicians with a foreign background are related to work and to the integration process.
On work related policies that are relevant for female musicians with a foreign background and more specifically regarding musicians Tjelmeland affirms that immigration – and employment – of musicians in general, independently of race or origin, was subject of regulations, in order to preserve the tight marked during the 50- 70’s. Take the example of Tromsø town, in the north of Norway. Statistics show a significant increase of number of foreign musicians working in Norway, despite the regulations. These numbers fall around 197534.
In the field of music, there have been female musicians with African, African American, and Caribbean background who came to Norway whether specifically for work purposes, or for family reunion. An example is opera singer Anne Brown, who settled in Oslo in 1948, after marrying skier Thorleif Schjelderup.
In other words, Africans can not be work migrants in Norway, unless they are based in EEA countries. However Africans can come under other arrangements, such as UN refugees programs, family reunion – to Norwegian citizens or to a refugee family member, asylum seekers, as students who can stay in Norway after the studies, or under a specialist quota, where African specialists are also included.
Ethnicity
According to sociologist and migration researches Stephen Castles35, in their condition as immigrants, people tend to search for a sense of “collective
consciousness or feeling of being a community, based on a belief in shared language, traditions, religion, history and experiences”.36 Taking into account this statement, it is possible to argue that when looking for forms that can give them a certain degree of a collective consciousness, a sense of belonging and identity, as way of facing the
34 Tjelmeland in Kjeldstadli 2003, pg 87-89.
35 Castles S & Miller M (ed), 2003
36 Castles, S & Miller M (ed), 2003, pg 33
hostility and difficulties coming from the host community, that is when those with an African background embrace a certain ethnic identity, in this case, their African-ness.
“Ethnicity” is a word that is often connected to peoples from different origin places than that of the majority in a society. However, it is not always clear what this word means. In the Norwegian context we often hear or read about the “Etnisk norsk”
versus “Etnisk bakgrunn”37
Norwegian social anthropologists have discussed ethnicity for decades. As sciences develop, so do concepts change.
Fredrik Barth refers that initially in the discipline of social anthropology, opposes to the traditional definition of ethnicity as related to socio-cultural aspects within a society; according to him, there are aggregates of people that who share a common culture, and are separated geographically from the . These aggregates of people are the ethnic groups38. Elements that are not stable, instead are linked to interests of the group. These elements may fluctuate, do not play a role, until there are interests from the individuals. Example between Swedish and Norwegians. It only becomes relevant and necessary to define them as two different groups when there are interests involved in this defining. Otherwise, they can be seen as one group. These boundaries are flexible, according to interests. and hence to boundaries, to a common culture and to a differentiation from a majority. In my opinion, Barth’s definition sets the aggregation of people into a group as crucial for it to be considered a ethnic unit. Ethnic unit is not a stabile essence, it is intrinsically related to relationships and interests and therefore it can be important for an individual to belong to a given group for a given time span or situation, and in another situations it may not be relevant nor convenient, The ethnic unit can to draw borders according to interests.. According to my
understanding, Barth explains that the individual is bound to certain people at a given time according to certain interests. The individual chooses strategies and associations that will promote his or her interests. The author does run away from the common idea of ethnic as related to cultural elements, such as language, gastronomy and so on, and focus on a social organization instead. According to him, individuals can acquire such elements from the other groups they interact with, according to circumstances and their own interest. This is to say that these social organizations are not
unchangeable, their solidity depends on particular circumstances of historical, social,
37 “Ethnic Norwegian” versus “Ethnic background”
38 Barth, F pg 09, 1969.
economical and political nature. In the case of a change in these circumstances, a change on ethnic groups also is possible. In other words, and in our situation, Ethiopian, Gambian, Congolese and Zimbabwean women in Norway, each from a specific country do identify themselves as Africans. According to Barth’s theory, these women may have not had to use the tag of Africans, had they not lived in Norway, and had they not felt the need to unite under this common flag. There are interests that have made them coincide under this umbrella. The same can be said about the members of Afrikan Youth in Norway, as, according to the movements history, it was founded by a group of young people who felt that there was a need for such an organisation. It congregates youth who have something in common, and which is beyond their countries of origin, or those of their parents.
At the same time, this definition by Barth can raise certain questions. If ethnicity is based on common interests, how can we explain for example the deep sense of belonging manifested through shared cultural elements as the food and the dancing?
Ahead, Barth proposes a definition that is more flexible, where elements culture (language, territory, network) can and are being bent according to circumstances (geographic, historical, resources, economic), and where specific groups of people interact with others, and without loosing their essence, as themselves, and as well in term they communicate with other groups, they may let go of some of their original features, without loosing their sense of belonging to a or b ethnic group.
I find Barth’s definition very interesting. For while groups are normally named according to their origin, it is true that once in a new environment, these groups may be dissolved, and their elements re-absorved by existing groups, or newer groups may be created, groups that are not necessarily based on background of their elements (for instance country of origin of the members), but more on common interests (dance, courses, music and so on). An observation on Barth’s theory is that it focuses in rural communities, however an exercise of transposing it to urban contexts, we can see that it corresponds to current situations. Critique to Barth questions how he can not
explain the strength of the bond to the group. It may be that he undermines a certain continuity and a power to reproduce ethnicity. However, in my opinion, his concept of a “mobile” ethnicity can be useful when it comes to finding a community that accepts you, schemes for quota, distribution of grants and other.
By the time the third wave of immigration has reached Norway, Hylland Eriksen analyses ethnicity and nationalism39.
For us it is important the reference to the migratory wave to Norway, as it
signifies that Norwegians may have found themselves living side to side with persons very different culturally (language, skin colour, habits, etc), and that Norway may have had to face challenges in this process.
Ethnic groups different from the ones known before start to permeate the Norwegian society, and it becomes natural to try and understand the process. We no longer study cases far away, but rather cases within the same society we live in. This must have been a change in the social anthropology of the decades 1960-1980 in Norway.
Back to Eriksen40, he considers ethnicity as a phenomenon that is related to the relationship between groups that consider themselves – and are considered by others, to be culturally distinctive41. He furthermore identifies four types of ”ethnicities”, of which, only the first seems relevant for our discussion. This is the “urban ethnic minorities”. According to him, this category includes those who have a past of immigration to the current place where they are located. They may share problems of racism, ethic discrimination from the host community, as well as issues related to identity and management of cultural change.42 Comparing this definition to the one presented by Barth, I can see that the main difference is Eriksen’s focus on the social context or physical space that creates the group and its characteristics. Also is the capacity of the society receiver of creating conditions that will help determine how the minority will behave, whereas Barth defines these groups as geographical groups that are already established somewhere. While for Barth these groups are formed, and may change according to circumstances, for Eriksen, these groups are formed as a consequence of a change on their geographic space (migration, and a consequent search of fitting).
On his side, Steven Castles, an Australian social scientist focuses more on the receiving society, as the active machine to influence the formation of the “ethnicities”
within it.43 According to him, “the migratory process works in a similar way in all
39 Eriksen, T: 1993
41 Idem, pg4
42 ibid, pg.5
43 Castles (ed), 2003, pg 14.
countries, with respect to chain migration and settlement (...) The main differences are to be found in state policies on immigration, settlement, citizenship and cultural pluralism.”44 This is to say in other words that “ethnicity” will in a significant degree be defined by how the host society sees the new comers. Hence there can be ethnic communities (seen as part of a multicultural society) and ethnic minorities (whose presence is widely undesirable and divisive45.
These new comers bring with them a set of values that can be others than economical. These values can be in terms of academic training, a network, a family title and so on. This is what Pierre Bourdieu called “forms of capital” as we will see further in the coming chapter. So far, we can say is that Capital and Ethnicity seem to be concepts that vary enormous according to the community where they are used, the historical context of the group using them, and the interaction this same group has with others, of new settlers, new comers, or local communities.
In this context, both concepts will be questioned according to the need to define the relationship between female musicians with an African background, and the Norwegian society and system as a whole.
Female African musician Who is African?
We ought to agree on one point: who is the African Female Musician? This
dissertation focus upon one concrete group of people in Norway, and there is a need to define them, first as African. Initially, the object of this dissertation was broader, including, i) those born and raised in a given African country, who moved to Norway as adults; ii) those who were born from African parents, be it in Africa or in Norway;
iii) those who were born by one Norwegian parent and another from Africa, and iv) those who may have been born in a third country, but live in Norway, and have a strong sense of belonging to the African Diaspora46.
In ”African Diasporas: a musicological perspective, editor Ingrid Monson discusses ”Diaspora” as a term which definition starts with dispersion, exile, migration, and then the continuing experience of racial oppression. It is related to
44 Idem, pg 220.
45 Idem, pg 32.
46 Diaspora as in the sense of being far from the motherland, and a strong desire to return. In this case, to African
transnational identities and ideologies,47 and we add, the longing to return ”home”.
Here we can problematize this ”longing to return”, for as Gilroy points ”all roads do not point to Africa”48. It is true, during the initial stage of this work, one artist
expressed that she, by no means felt ”African”. She was French-Norwegian, and only her father was from an African country. In my opinion, this example confirms
Gilroy’s finding that not always people in the Diaspora long for ”returning” to Africa.
But back to our study, there was a decision to focus on four examples of African Female Musicians. 1) One was born and raised in an African country. She had a career as a musician before settling in Norway, where she came to reunite with her fiancée; 2) Born in an African country, but raised in Norway, by a ethnic Norwegian family; 3) Born in an African country, moved to Norway at the age of 20 years old; 4) Born and raised in Norway by one Norwegian parent (and one foreign). They all have in common the fact that they feel African, whether due to their daily experience in their encounter with ethnic Norwegians (let us not forget that they have dark skin color), or due to their own convictions and identity. They also fall into the category of persons with immigrant background discussed earlier. I would have liked to include one more woman, one who was raised in Norway by African parents. As mentioned before, this was not possible.
Summing up, we hereby define female African musician as a woman born from at least one African parent, who identify herself as completely or partially African, and who has a relatively successful music career.
Popular musicians
The field of popular music studies is relatively new. Popular music is basically understood as the opposite to classical or art music. Richard Middleton has, in his
“Studying Popular Music” 49 proposed a definition of the term. He says that Popular can be seen as “vulgar, common” in a depreciative focus; but in the other hand, it can be seen as what “belongs to the people”, legitimate.50
The reason why it becomes relevant for this work to understand what is popular music, is because this is a study on female musicians who produce popular music and
47 Monson 2003, pg 91
48Monson 2003, pg7, citing Beorn, Jacqueline 1998:, pg93.
49 Middleton, R, 1990.
50 Idem, pg 3