Livelihood Practices of Trafficked Returnee Women in Nepal

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Date: 1 Sep2020 Total number of pages: 57(+14)

Course code: Name: Bigyan Bahadur Karki

SO 345S Candidate no: 326898

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this study would have been impossible without the involvement of many individuals and institutions to whom I would like to express my sincere gratitude. My deepest appreciations and gratitude go to my supervisor, Professor Linda Sjåfjell for her invaluable advice, guidance, motivation and patience. Her support has been priceless. I offer my sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Yan Zhao for her valuable advice and support in the methodological chapter of the study and her constructive suggestions in the initial stage of my research.

Also, many thanks go to Nord University staff, who helped me when I needed it. I express many thanks to the participants who actively participated in the interviews. Their support made the data collection procedure more manageable than I had imagined. I have learned many things from them. I appreciate their struggle for livelihood practice.

Bigyan Bahadur Karki, 1 Septmber 2020

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ABSTRACT

Girls/ women trafficking is not only a woman’s issue, but also an issue about the honor of the community, society, state, and wellbeing of all human beings. Respect and dignity of life highly depend on women and girls. The objective of this study was to examine the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal, following their socio-economic conditions. It follows different research questions under a major question: How do trafficked returnee women in Nepal get involved in livelihood practices for their psycho-social re-settlement?

This study has found that the trafficked returnee women in Nepal face several social problems for livelihood practices. Therefore, it discusses their pre-trafficked, post-trafficked, and trafficked life experiences using livelihood theory, strengths, and solution-focused approaches such as social work and social stigma theories

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Moreover, the study is done on the trafficked returnee women, their livelihood practices in their psycho-social re-settlement setting, and their steps against stigmatization socio-cultural practices. I used the interpretive paradigm in my research within the qualitative research approach. The data were collected from five participants using open-ended and in-depth interview sessions. The trafficked returnee women shared there pathetic experiences, understandings, views, opinions, and practices of pre- trafficked, during trafficking and post-trafficked periods. The analysis of the data shows that the trafficked returnee women experienced many physical, psychological, and mental acts of violence during the period of trafficking. After they were rescued from brothels, they still struggled to sustain livelihood and to systematize their life activities against poverty. They still face discrimination in many different ways, for example, the use of different abusive words and inhuman activities towards them and their families were common. Therefore, these trafficked returnee women got stigmatized and the social trauma haunts them affecting their daily personal and social activities.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome CWN Child Workers in Nepal

DFID Department for International Development HDI Human development index

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ILO International Labour Organization

INGO International Non-Governmental Organization SFBT Solution-focused Brief Therapy

NGO Non-Governmental Organization NHRC National Human Rights Commission UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

WHO World Health Organization

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This research is based on the thoughts, ideas, and experiences of the five participants. It is guided by the interpretive paradigm, following the ethnographic method. It aims at

investigating the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. After reviewing the relevant literature, I find significant gaps to be explored in the field of women trafficking.

In this chapter, I narrate the backgrounds of Nepalese trafficked returnee women and my own experiences and beliefs as a student. I also discuss how I identified the research problem for my dissertation. I saw many trafficked returnee women in Kathmandu, who were involved in different livelihood activities. It provides a broader picture of socio-economic, cultural beliefs, and practices of the family, society and nation. Likewise, I contextualize the area of my research, i.e. livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. This chapter begins with the background, in which I describe the conditions that trafficked returnee women live in, with special reference to Nepalese society. The background of my research helps me relate to the topic of my research with the broader context of women trafficking. The next section states the purpose of my study. In the section that follows, I formulate some questions that guide me to conduct the present research project. This chapter closes with a discussion on the significance and delimitation of the study.

1.1 Background Information

In this study, I attempt to integrate some of my reflective connection with the issue of

livelihood practices of trafficked returnee girls and women in Nepal. It is not only a woman’s matter, but also an issue about the honor of the community, society, state, and the well-being of all the men, women, boys, and girls who have their prospects in life. Nepal has managed to get radical improvement in the control of women trafficking. However, this problem still exists as one of the biggest national problems. There are many causes of trafficking.

According to Unicef, (2003), child trafficking is a complex issue and some of the key

determinants of trafficking include poverty, loss of parents, lack of awareness among the most vulnerable segments of the population, low levels of education, gender discrimination, rapid urbanization, false promises and beliefs and lack of employment opportunities. Similarly, Nepalese children and women are trafficked both inside the country mostly from rural to

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urban areas, as well as outside the country, mainly to India, China, and increasingly to Gulf countries.

Nepal is trying to speed up the pace of socio-economic development. According to the UNDP (2019), “Nepal’s HDI value for 2018 is 0.579— which puts the country in the medium human development category— positioning it at 147 out of 189 countries and territories”

(p.2). Many people are living under the poverty line. Poverty, rapid population growth, unemployment, poor health, and low economic growth rates are the main problems of Nepal (Kiss, Davis, Fotheringhame, McAlpine, Kyegombe, Abilio, & Mak, 2019). Whereas Khare, Joshi, and Vaidya (2010) stated, “In Nepal's low social status, illiteracy and lack of

awareness, the prevalence of gender discrimination, cultural violence,factors are playing a major role to increase the women trafficking.”

Nepalese society has been struggling against the crime of women, children, and the marginalized group of people for a long time. As a result, in 1990 some major changes appeared in the politics of Nepal which established a democratic constitution, freedom, and human right in the Nepalese society. People believed these changes addressed the problem of women, children, and social victims of society (Joshi, 2014). However, these changes could not change the social problems of women, children, and dominated groups of society.

Therefore, the life of Nepalese women and children are getting worse, despite government efforts to develop the conditions of women by controlling crimes against women, and children (Kiss, et al, 2019).As we know, most of the crimes all over the world have been against women and children and Nepal is not an exception to this global trend. Crimes against women and girls like rape, child prostitution, women trafficking, child marriage, abduction of

children, exploitation of child labor, and child sex abuse have been growing in Nepalese society (Khare, Joshi & Vaidya, 2010). Children and women are trafficked due to different reasons. According to different sources of information, children are trafficked mainly for commercial sexual exploitation, bonded labor, worst forms of child labor (working in mines, domestic servants, working in the circus), forced marriage, and organ removal. Over the past few years, the expansion of the local sex industry has resulted in rapid growth in the

trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation (UNICEF, n. d). There is a lack of recent and reliable statistical information on the magnitude of trafficking in Nepal.

It is believed that the existing data do not represent the magnitude of the problem in reality and that numbers are likely to be much higher. Research suggests for example that, annually, approximately 12,000 children are trafficked to India, mainly for sexual exploitation

(ILO/CWIN, 2001, Joshi, 2014). According to the National Human Rights Commission report

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(2014), the estimated number of people trafficked or attempted to be trafficked in 2012/13, was 29,000. The UNODC (2012) suggests that in Nepal during 2007-2009, out of detected victims of trafficking, 36 % were children (33 % girls, 3 % boys), and respectively 64 % adults (women 53 %, men 11%).

Prostitution and human trafficking are treated as serious crimes in Nepal, but many people are performing it as their profession. Cross country trafficking has been a great problem in Nepal.

Innocent, uneducated village girls and women are the victims of trafficking and sexual exploitation. The criminals sold them to the brothels with fake promises of providing them a well-paid job, fake marriage, and kidnapping. Nowadays Nepalese girls are being trafficked to any country outside of Nepal, where most of them are sold into brothels.

In brothels, they spend a miserable life and it does not seem to improve even after they are rescued. They had to face a lot of problems during their reestablishment in society. Almost all the victims are suffering from mental and physical ailments. Most of the trafficked returnee women and girls are infected by different kinds of diseases. The most common diseases are HIV/AIDS and chronic pelvic infections. They need special care and counseling to maintain their psychological and emotional disorder of the brothel under control (National Human Rights Commission report, 2014).

1.1.1 Historical Background Women Trafficking

Human trafficking is one of the fastest-growing criminal industries in the world. But relatively little is known about the issue of human trafficking and the effectiveness of programs aimed at combating trafficking and rehabilitating victims and survivors (Joshi, 2010).

To understand the phenomenon of human 'trafficking, we need a clear and unambiguous definition of human trafficking. We understand the definition better if we trace the historical development of the concept of "trafficking", and see what it has meant to different people, organizations and governments over time. The earliest understanding of "trafficking" comes from UN instruments. The term "traffic" was first used to refer to the so-called ‘white slave trade’ in women around 1900. The trafficking and voluntary migration of white women from Europe to Arab and Eastern States as concubines or prostitutes were of particular concern to European middle-class men, women, and governments. The result was the creation of an international agreement for suppression of the ‘white slave trade’ in 1904. At this time,

"traffic" meant the movement of women for an immoral purpose i.e., prostitution. Initially,

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this definition required the crossing of country borders, but by 1910, it changed to

acknowledge traffic in women could occur within national boundaries. Women trafficking was related to slavery but was also closely linked to prostitution (Pearson, 2000).

In the context of Nepal, there is no concrete documented history of women trafficking and prostitution. But it has been related to poverty and social prestige, debt bondage and

ignorance and slavery. According to Manila Attma Nirvar Kendra (1997), the trafficking of Nepalese women and girls for sexual exploitation began in Nepal with the rise of Rana rulers in the mid-19^th century, when the Rana ruling classes started keeping Tamang (an indigenous community of Nepal) girls as concubines and servants in their palaces (Joshi & Swabnberg, 2012, p.90). The girls were brought to the capital city from economically poor families of marginalized ethnic groups. Their families were compelled to keep daughters as concubines and household servants in the families of Ranas.

Similarly, according to Joshi (2010), the trafficking of Nepalese women and girls to Indian brothels started in the 1960s. Earlier, Nepalese women required a special authorization to go to India during the Rana rule. About 50% of Nepal's female sex workers have previously worked in Mumbai and more than 200,000 Nepalese girls are involved in the Indian sex trade (p.3).

1.1.2 Present Situation of Women in Nepalese Society

Many women are still deprived of their basic human rights and right to livelihood practices some are not even given the right to freedom and many have been treated as commodities.

However, the total population of Nepal is 26,494,504, out of this, 48.5% of Nepal's total population is male, while 51.8% are female (Ministry of Population and Environment 2017).

Despite being more than half of the population, women and girls are still underprivileged in terms of education, health services, and proper respect in society. Therefore, they are being trafficked to different parts of the world. Nepal is still led by the patriarchal system of society, therefore, women are not given the right to inheritance of property. Despite the progress made in literacy rate, there is a huge gap (18%) between males (75.1 %) and females (57.4 %) in 2011 (Ministry of Population and Environment, 2017).

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1.2 Significance of the Study

This study presents a critical reading on the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. It further highlights the socio-economic causes of girls and women being trafficked and the challenges they faced during the time they were trafficked, after being rescued and their rehabilitation process. This research was conducted to gather information about livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. The findings hopefully provide positive effects in the efforts of decreasing women trafficking and making lives easier for those who have already been trafficked in the context of Nepal. Besides, although it is not the aim of the research, the findings of this study will help the government and anti-trafficking organization to find the physical, psychological, social, professional, economic condition of the trafficked returnee women and thus will be able to properly solve them. Apart from them, this study also analyzes the punishment systems for the crime of those who trafficked women and children, which is perhaps one of the most important factors dealing with the trafficking issue.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of my study is to exhibit the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. More particularly, this study explores their understandings, opinions, practices, and perceptions of being a victim of being trafficked in Nepal.

1.4 Research Questions

To unveil these issues, I have formulated the following research questions:

1. How do trafficked returnee women in Nepal get involved in livelihood practices for their psycho-social re-settlement?

The research question shapes my entire research project. However, it has been explored from three more perspectives, narrativizing the livelihood practices concerning the backgrounds of the trafficked women influencing the trafficking and their bitter experiences during the time they were trafficked. I have taken this method, particularly because their livelihood practices are essentially linked to their social and psycho-physical conditions they underwent before

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settling themselves as trafficked returnees in Nepal. Therefore, I add three more secondary research questions as follows:

a. How do the trafficked women narrate their experiences of the time they were trafficked?

b. What sort of socio-psychological stress do these women face for their resettlement in society?

c. In what way do these women have to struggle for their livelihood practices in their society?

1.4 Delimitation of the Study

This research was carried out following the qualitative method used in the interviews I conducted with five traffic returnee women in Nepal. It reviews the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women and their socio-economic conditions during and after the period of being trafficked. This study was conducted under the principles of livelihood and strengths, and solution-focused approaches such as social work. I discuss the different factors which influenced the trafficking of women and their livelihood practices. Likewise, I also present the impact of trafficking on the trafficked survivors

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mental or psychological impact of trafficking on the trafficked returnees and the violation of the basic human rights of trafficked survivors

1.5 Organization of the Study

The research is organized in six chapters: introduction, literature review, research theory, methodology, finding, and conclusion. The first chapter introduces the topic. It deals with the introduction and the background of the study. Then, it discusses the issues this study centers on and the purpose of this study. After that, it describes the purpose of carrying out this study and the research questions.

The second chapter reviews the relevant literature. It provides a brief overview of women trafficking in Nepal. In this chapter, I attempt to conceptualize the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. The review is constructed on the facts and figures relevant to the Nepalese society. After that, it analyses a brief review of the empirical studies carried out in other parts of the world around the same theme.

The third chapter discusses the theoretical frame framework for the study. The social work theory is discussed as the theoretical base for the study. Then, there is a detailed discussion of

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social contexts and social practices. Moreover, there is also a discussion on the postmodern approach as another theoretical base for the study. The researcher discusses the concepts of discourse and subjectivity in detail which are used in the study for the interpretation of the data.

The fourth chapter discusses the methodology of the study. Then it involves the research design in detail. It also explains qualitative analysis as the method followed during the study.

After that, it presents a discussion on the quality standards of the study. At last, it presents a discussion on the ethical issues addressed for the study.

The fifth chapter presents the stories of the trafficked returnee women in Nepalese society.

The stories of the trafficked returnee women are based on the shared experiences and information collected during the interviews. The narratives are followed by the findings drawn from the analysis of the narratives. Nepal is a garden of multicultural castes and ethnicities but all of them are guided by a male-dominated society and patriarchal value.

Therefore, there is no equal power relationship between a man and woman (males are given the right to the property of his father by birth but females are not). Gender discrimination has been practiced in Nepalese society for a long time. My interest in the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women arose in my mind because of my personal experience. As I discussed in the beginning when I was in Kathmandu, I had seen many trafficked returnee women who were having trouble to resettle in society. I had seen some of the trafficked returnee women begging in the street suffering from different diseases. When I came to Nord University as a student of social work, we discussed women trafficking and their pathetic living conditions.Therefore, I decided to carry out my study focusing on “the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal”.

1.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, I discussed the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. I also shared my personal experiences. Similarly, I dealt with the background information, purpose of the study that helped me to develop the research questions. The significance of this research preceded the delimitation of my study.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter critically reviews the related literature on livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. According to Yin (2011), “the review sharpens the preliminary considerations regarding the research topic of the study, method and data sources” (P.62).

Similarly, Hart(1998) stated that the review of related literature is very important for getting an in-depth understanding and a clear perspective of the overall field of the research

(Silverman,2005). Therefore, in the process of my research, I visited many libraries such as the Nord University library in Bodo, University of Oslo (UIO) library, Tribhuban University Library Kirtipur. I went through different books, dissertations, various national and

international journals, and articles of different authors as well as other related materials to address the issue that I came across in the theoretical aspects of the topic. I also intended to find out what other works have been done in the area of research problems under the study and what has been done in the field of the research study that is being carried out.

It identifies the literature that explains the basic concept of women trafficking and its purpose, types, components, and techniques. It also sheds light on what it is and why it is a social problem of Nepal. This chapter also mentions scholars' views about women trafficking.

Some empirical research studies carried out on the subject are also reviewed. Then, the objectives and findings of some relevant works are summarized.

2.1 Defining Trafficking: A Conceptual Framework

Trafficking is defined in different ways according to the condition and the situation of the person, organization, and the nation. Human trafficking is the illegal trade of human beings mainly for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor (Naik, 2018). Human trafficking is the fastest-growing, criminal industry in the world. But relatively little is known about the issue of human trafficking and the effectiveness of programs aimed at combating trafficking and rehabilitating victims/survivors. (Joshi, 2010). The UN (2000) defines trafficking as:

Trafficking in persons” shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, utilizing the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or a position of vulnerability or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of

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the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs” (Human Rights and Human Trafficking, 2014).

In other words, human trafficking encompasses the selling and buying of women and

children, especially for prostitution. The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act 2007 of Nepal defines trafficking into two forms: i) human trafficking and ii) human

transportation.

(1) If anyone commits any of the following acts that shall be deemed to have committed human trafficking: a. To sell or purchase a person for any purpose, b. To use someone in prostitution, with or without any benefit, c. To extract human organs except otherwise determined by law, d. To go for prostitution.

(2) If anyone commits any of the following acts that shall be deemed to have committed human transportation: a. To take a person out of the country to buy and sell, b. To take anyone from his /her home, place of residence or from a person by any means such as enticement, inducement, misinformation, forgery, tricks, coercion, abduction, hostage,

allurement, influence, threat, abuse of power and through inducement, fear, threat or coercion to the guardian or custodian and keep him/her into one's custody or take to any place within Nepal or abroad or handover him/her to somebody else for prostitution and exploitation (Sharma A. R., 2018).

Similarly, S. A. A. R. C. (1997). defined “Trafficking” means the moving, selling or buying of women and children for prostitution within and outside a country for monetary or other considerations with or without the consent of the person subjected to trafficking

2.2 Trafficking and Prostitution

In the present condition of Nepal, the word “trafficking” and “prostitution” are used synonymously. This is false thinking and they have huge difference in their meaning.

Trafficking is an umbrella term whereas prostitution is a part that covers one of the fields in trafficking. According to Bhattacharya (1998), prostitution is one category into which women and children are trafficked. The ultimate purpose of trafficking is not only to sell women and children to brothels, but it also has a much wider scope and can, as such take women and children into bonded labor, begging, camel jockeying, and orange trading.

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Considering the sex trade, two categories of prostitution are identified: the first one is composed of those who joined sex trade by choice and the second one is made up of those who are victims of forced trafficking. Therefore, the first is taken as a means for livelihood, and the other one is done by criminals who transport trafficked victims from one place to another by violating their human rights for forceful prostitution.

2.3 A Human Rights-Based Approach to Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Women

The human rights approach is one of the most prominent approaches in dealing with the violation of human rights, trafficking, and sexual exploitation of women and children.

Similarly, the notions human rights and human trafficking are also known as human right based approaches to address human trafficking (Haddadin, 2019). He has proposed many principles about human trafficking. The following are the basic principles: Primacy of human rights. It refers to the priority of human rights in any action. Prevention: it requires the

identification of the root causes of trafficking and their solutions. This is the best way to combat trafficking. Protection and assistance to victims: it refers to the protection of the rights of the rescued victims and the rehabilitation following the human right approach.

Criminalization, prosecution, and redress: this principal focuses on the legal action regarding their problems and inhuman treatment they receive from the society, focuses on ending their poverty, following the human rights law.

Similarly, UNITED NATIONS (2014) stated:

A human rights-based approach is a conceptual framework for dealing with a phenomenon such as trafficking that is normatively based on international human rights standards and that is operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights. Such an approach requires analysis of how human rights violations arise throughout the trafficking cycle, as well as of States’ obligations under international human rights law. It seeks to both identify and redress the discriminatory practices and unjust distribution of power that underlie trafficking, that maintain impunity for traffickers and that deny justice to their victims.

According to the gtZ (2008),the human right based approach is an anti-trafficking action which affects the trafficked victims and other related groups. It is mainly focused on

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empowerment, self-representation, and participation of the victims or trafficked returnees.

Likewise, universality, indivisibility, non-discrimination of human rights into legislation, policies and programs are the main objective of the human rights-based approach.

Similarly, Joint, U. N. (2011), stated that human right approach is a methodology which is designed based on the international human rights standard to protect and establish human rights. It is mainly focused on human rights that protect, support, and provide compensation to victims.

2.4 Empirical Research Studies

Using primary and secondary data, Adhikari (2011) explored the experiences and perceptions of Nepalese girls who were victims of trafficking. In-depth interview was the main source for primary data; the findings show that the trafficked returnees (informants) upon returning from the trafficked cities accepted and reintegrated into the family and community. The informants got married and established small businesses for a living.

Sanghera and Kapur (2000) studied an assessment of laws and policies for the prevention and control of trafficking in Nepal. The research concludes that the current laws and policies in Nepal focus on trafficking for prostitution. By emphasizing the endpoint, the violence and abuse of human rights that occur during the process of trafficking for any purpose were not addressed. K. C (2015) carried out the research, entitled “Reintegration of Sex Trafficking Survivors in Nepal: Challenges and Coping Mechanisms”. The Snowball sampling method procedure was used to select the participants from different parts of the Kathmandu district.

The study identified poverty led to unemployment, lack of education and awareness,

patriarchal domination, and gender-based discrimination as fundamental factors causing sex trafficking in Nepal.

Sharma (2015) researched “Sex Trafficking in Nepal: Women’s Experiences of

Reintegration”. Participants for this research were recruited via a combination of snowball sampling and a purposive sampling strategy to administer the questionnaire. The study shows that most of the anti-trafficking organizations in Nepal encourage and assist previously trafficked women to return to their families in village settings. ‘Family reintegration’ is viewed as a core component of their work. However, by not critically appraising this goal these institutions risk minimizing the damaging impacts of the discrimination and exclusion

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faced by returnees at the community level after they return to their families. These returnees then face further violations of their human rights, which is not in accord with rights-based practice.

Similarly, multiple studies have been carried out on various aspects of women trafficking in Nepal. For example, Simkhada (2008) argues that many girls who become involved in sex work in Nepal do so because they are compelled by economic circumstances and social inequality. Some enter sex work voluntarily; others do so by force or deception, potentially involving migration across international borders. He has also mentioned the trafﬁckers used a variety of means to draw girls into the sex trade. The four key tactics of sex trafficking included: (i) employment-induced migration via a broker; (ii) deception, through false marriage; (iii) visits offer; and (iv) force, through abduction. The majority of respondents (55%) were trafficked through false job promises.

2.5 The Research Gap

Almost all of the national and international researchers have adopted mixed or quantitative methods, without the provision of a research paradigm, but the present research has been guided by the interpretive paradigm in a qualitative stance. It has applied the qualitative approach and used the ethnographic method. Likely, the researches carried out in this topic focuses on integration, but my study focuses on livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women analyzed in three phases: pre-trafficking, while-trafficking and post-trafficking or re- settlement.

Literature has shown that many research studies have been conducted on trafficked women in Nepal. The review of various research studies and articles on trafficked women in Nepal will help me to know that some researchers emphasized on the type, causes, and source of

trafficking while others focused on the self-identity of the trafficked returnees. The studies help me commence a new investigation in the area of livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. This study will be carried out in the context of Nepal, using the interpretive paradigm with the qualitative method of data analysis. Almost all of the

researches have researched the trafficking period to reintegration. However, the present study will study also livelihood practices after the reintegration of society. Similarly, almost none of the studies focused on the right solution to minimize the trafficking problem in the context of Nepalese society. However, the purpose of my research will be to explore the problem face by the trafficked returnee for the livelihood practices in the context of Nepalese society.

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Chapter III

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents a discussion on the theoretical frame framework for the study. The Social Work Theory is discussed as a theoretical base for the study. Then, there is a detailed discussion of social contexts and social practices. Moreover, there is also a discussion on postmodern approaches as another theoretical base for the study. The researcher discusses the concepts of discourse and subjectivity in detail which are used in the study for the

interpretation of the data.

3.1Theories on Livelihood: Main Concepts

I have mentioned above that livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women are the core concepts of my research and it tries to analyze their life experiences based on the interview data. “A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base.” (DFID, 2000 GLOPP, 2008. P.1). In this view, livelihood is seen as a phenomenon that reflects the quality of life of the individual, reflecting the present and the future. It is more a matter of sustainability rather than just living life. That being said, how long the quality of life goes is counted in a way of living. Similarly, the livelihood approach mainly focuses on the livelihood activities of the people and it helps them to systematize their life. It also encourages poor people to improve their poverty level.

Moreover, it also supports designing the policy and method to develop the lifestyle and daily needs of the backward people of society (de Haan, 2012).

However, on the academic side, the question of how people make their living was raised comparatively early and has drawn the attention of scholars from various scientific

disciplines. Kaag et al. (2004:51) identify the first theoretical account on livelihoods based on Polanyi’s (1977) work, The Livelihood of Man. It was Polanyi’s objective to develop a

holistic and human-centered, as well as a socially, culturally, and historically embedded economic science (Sakdapolrak, 2014). According to the above-mentioned definition, people’s social, cultural, historical, economic, and holistic life experiences and activities are seen as key elements in the process of developing livelihood practices. It means living a life is

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a necessary principle that has to respond to the various aspects of socio-cultural dimensions.

In my study, livelihood practices of trafficked returnee girls and women can probably cope with or recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance their capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation, which can both make a difference to others and reveal the uniqueness of the people involved.

3.2 Strengths and Solution-focused Approaches such as Social Work

The perspective of strengths and solution-focused approaches, originally developed in a mental health practice context, is now adapted for a broad range of practice methods, including child protection (Turnel & Edward, 1999), addictions ( van Wormer & Davis, 2003), developmental disabilities (Quinn, 1998), social policy (Chapin, 1995) and criminal justice (van Wormer, 2001; Healy, 2014). According to Healy (2014), the growing popularity of the strengths perspective, since its founding in the late 1980s, can be partly attributed to its embodiment of social work values, particularly its emphasis on respect and service user’s self-determination (p.162). Similarly, according to Saleebey (2012), the strengths perspective and SFBT do not require a detailed understanding of and plan to respond to problems but the workers need to gain a detailed understanding of service users strengths and triumphs they already have their problems along with the hope and dreams for their future (Healy, 2014. p.

163).

Here, for Healy, strengths and solution-focused approaches recognize and focus on the strength’s capacities of the service user to respond to their problems which view service provision as a mutual learning process for service providers and service users. It explores future possibilities rather than examining the past.

3.2.1 Strengths Perspective

Saleeby (2002, pp.12–18), elaborates five key principles of the strength’s perspective:

individual and communal strength, psychological strength, the immeasurability of strength, strength of social service and resourcefulness of strength(Kieran, Munford, O'Donoghue, &

Nash, 2005, p. 162-63).

The five principles mean that every individual who undergoes suffering in his/her life can cope up with the problem if it is addressed tactfully. Personal and social strengths can come as a tool to work with socio-psychological challenges. However, when it is handled by a

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service provider, availability of resources, and collaboration with the concerned authorities, either individual or social, play a significant role.

3.2.2 Practical strategies

Different theorists come up with their opinions regarding the psycho-social settlement of an individual in his/her life and society. The theories can simply be discussed as ‘strategies’. In this regard, according to Healy (2014), there are five practical strategies for applying the above-mentioned principle.

Social workers have a professional duty to assume a positive and optimistic attitude towards service users. According to Turnell and Edwards (1999), optimism is essential because our outlook determines whether we can see, let alone build on, service users’

strengths and resourcefulness (Healy, 2014, p. 169). This positive attitude requires us to be skeptical about labels that construct service users as incompetent or incapable of achieving an improved quality of life; instead, we should seek to fully recognize their capacities, resources and hopes, and dreams for the future (Healy, 2014).

Here, the researcher prioritizes the role of building optimism in an individual who undergoes a problem in his life. It can be possible if the ‘patient’ is counseled by triggering his/her hopes, hobbies, and future possibilities.

The researcher, while exploring the practical strengths, proposes the following approaches:

Focus Primarily on Assets

While advocating for the strengths perspective, we do not deny the reality of problems such as mental illness and addiction asserting that we should resist making them the focus of our assessment and intervention. Rather, we must primarily recognize service users’ assets, because we can only build on strengths, not on deficits. We should focus on eliciting the full range of people’s assets, including their capacities and the resources embedded in their social networks.

Collaborate with the Service User

Collaboration between service workers and service users can be encouraged in many ways.

These include:

a. Promoting a collaborative physical environment: For example, ensuring that space, where we work with the service user, is free of interruptions and furniture is arranged in ways that promote collaboration, so that workers and service users are sitting at the same level, face to face, with nothing obstructing our view of each other, such as a desk.

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b. Promoting a collaborative interpersonal relationship: Strategies for achieving

collaborative interpersonal relations are context-specific, so it is important that, in seeking to enhance mutuality, we do so in ways that are appropriate to the environment. Some general ways of achieving mutuality may include:

• encouraging mutual use of first names

• the use of appropriate self-disclosure, particularly to indicate resources and assets you may use in responding to the service user’s concerns

• paying attention to service users’ perceptions of the situation, especially their interpretations of the key issues and how these might be resolved

• encouraging service users to participate in setting the agenda for your work together and evaluating the effectiveness of that work

• being alert to opportunities for demystifying professional intervention processes, for example by clarifying biomedical terminology that has been applied to the service user or their situation.

c. Encouraging collaborative and creative solution-seeking: We can encourage collaborative solution seeking by, for example, working with service users to ‘brainstorm’ possible

solutions to their identified concerns.

Consistent with the principle of optimism, we should encourage service users to put forward all possible responses to identified concerns, no matter how outlandish and unrealistic they may seem to us. It means there are possibilities, but how we explore and implement them is a primary concern. Hence, the role of a social worker becomes extremely important in this regard.

Work towards the Long-term Empowerment of Service Users

In the same vein, Saleebey (2012) argues that social workers must support the empowerment of service users through dialogue and action in partnership with service users and

communities (Healy, 2014). The strengths perspective is aimed at achieving practical outcomes that enhance service users’ capacity to improve their quality of life. The social worker’s role is to facilitate service users’ capacity to use existing strengths and resources, as well as developing new ones, to achieve their hopes and dreams.

Create a Community

Besides, the role of a community is also no less vital in working with the person who has been experiencing different forms of problems in his/her life. Recognizing the same fact Haley writes:

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In working with service users’ strengths, we should recognize the strengths and assets embedded in service users’ social networks. These strengths could include people who the service user experiences as affirming and supportive, and the roles that service users perform in their ‘community’ that develop or reflect their capacity for self-help and/or helping others (2014).

Here, the argument is that an individual is connected in a dynamic interplay of communal and social underpinnings. Those very aspects of one’s life can also play a supportive role in bringing an individual into ‘normalcy’.

3.3 Solution-focused Brief Therapy

A core principle of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) is that service users already possess the knowledge and skill they need to address the problems they face. As Dashier et al. (1986, p. 207) state: ‘this is the key to brief therapy: utilizing what clients bring with them to help them meet their needs in such a way that they can make satisfactory lives for themselves’

(2014, p.174). The role of the social worker is that of assisting the client to uncover these capacities.

According to DeShazer (Haley, 1986), SFBT change is achieved in several ways. They involve a wide range of possibilities in addressing the question of resolving a social problem sustainably. A significant amount of them can be summarized as: emphasizing on solutions rather than on problems, making an environment which triggers expectations of and

sensitivity, motivating a person for generating a higher degree of confidence and awareness, presenting a series of alternatives which is also known as exception seeking question, discontinuing the chain of the vicious cycle.

After all this, the theories have built up my theoretical stance in this study. The theory of livelihood practices supports my analysis and interpretation because it assists me in creating patterns and themes reflecting on the everyday life of the trafficked returnee women.

Likewise, the strength and solution-focused theory guide my way of exploring the

opportunities those very women are utilizing in their livelihood practices. At the same time, Solution Focused Brief Theory (SFBT) enables me to know how the solutions of the

trafficked returnee women have been optimized during the process of their resettlement.

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According to Goffman (1963), stigma provides extensive social disapproval, discrediting social differences that affect the social prestige of the people. Similarly, he has also described stigma as “the situation of the individual who is disqualified from the social acceptance”

(DePierre, Puhl, & Luediecke, 2013, P.10). In other words, social stigma is a part of the social life of an individual in a society who is ‘discredited’ or alienated due to a social prejudice attributed to him/her.

The present thesis studies the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal.

Therefore, I have observed the social stigma of the participants and its effect on their livelihood practices. Dovidio, Major, & Crocker (2000) stated that most of the definition of the stigma has focused on the recognition of difference and devaluation. They have also emphasized that the stigma is changeable according to the context of the society (Bos, Pryor, Reeder & Stutterheim, 2013). In my study, the social stigma is prevalent in the trafficked returnee women, especially when they gradually settle back into society. It shows the changing context of stagnation.

Stigma is categorized by different scholars in different ways. Based on Pryor and Reeder (2011), they figured dynamically four types of stigma — public stigma, structural stigma, self-stigma, and stigma by association. According to them, public stigma is a central stigma of their model. Therefore it represents the peoples’ psychological reaction to someone they perceive to have a stigmatized condition. Public stigma contains the cognitive, affective, and behavioral reactions of the stigmatized (perceivers). The second is self-stigma which covers the social and psychological impact of possessing a stigma including negative stigma and to have the apprehension of being exposed to stigmatization and the potential internalization of negative beliefs and feelings associated with the stigmatized condition. Stigma by association is the third type of stigma, which is related to the social and psychological reaction to the people associated with a stigmatized person, as well as people’s reactions to being associated with a stigmatized person.Similarly, Pryor and Reeder (2011) defined the last structural stigma as the “legitimatization and perpetuation of stigmatized status by society’s institutions and ideological system”.

In my study, the trafficked returnee women undergo a social trauma which results in self- trauma. When they are regarded as socially discredited individuals, the social reaction pushes them to the margin. Structurally, there is also the trauma with the association: family, friends,

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community. They are more stigmatized because they are ‘returnee women’ (by contrast, not

‘returnee men’). It is because the society is patriarchal in the context of Nepal.

Goffman (1963) proposes giving three types of stigma: abominations of the body, individual characters, and tribal stigma. Stigma on abominations of the body includes the various physical deformities whereas individual characters contain as a weak will, domineering or unnatural passion, treacherous and rigid belief, and dishonesty, these being inferred from a known record of, for examples, mental disorder, imprisonment, addiction, alcoholism, homosexuality, unemployment, suicidal attempt, and radical political behavior. The tribal stigma of race, nation, and religion can be transmitted through the lineage and equally contaminate all members of the family to the same extent (Goffman, 1963. p,14).Similarly, according to Corrigan and Kosyluk (2013), there are significant differences between the stigma of health disorder such as mental illness and human traits such as ethnicity or gender (P131). Whereas the same concept is defined by Goffman (1963) as discredited or

discreditable stigma. The discredited stigma is easily noticeable such as skin color or feminine body type whereas discreditable are unseen like the disease processes that define illness or sexual orientation of gay and lesbians. The issues discussed here are not so much implacable in my study. But it is important to know that the theory of stigma has various dimensions.

3.4 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, theories on livelihood(Main Concepts), strengths and solution-focused approaches such as social work, Solution-focused Brief Therapy (SFBT), and social stigma provide the theoretical ground for this study. In my study, the livelihood theory has

acknowledged the life experiences of trafficked returnee girls and women during and after a period of being trafficked. Similarly, strengths and solution-focused approaches such as social work and SFBT has confessed to fixing the main problems of returnees trafficked for long term empowerment. Likewise, social stigma theory has discussed their mental psychological, social problems.

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CHAPTER VI

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methodological procedures selected for the study. The chapter begins with philosophical considerations, namely ontology, epistemology, and axiology. In the next section, the research paradigm that has guided this study is discussed. After that, the selection of participants, data collection tools and procedures, quality standards, and data analysis process has been discussed. This chapter concludes with the ethical considerations of the present research.

4.1 Philosophical Considerations

A researcher should complete his or her research under philosophical consideration. Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most

successful approach to the discovery of truth, as far as natural science is concerned (Brog 1994, cited in Cohen et al. 2002. p. 5). The philosophy of my entire research was that the issues were flexible. The plans and methodology were not fixed. I considered the following philosophical components of my research work.

4.1.1Ontology

Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals with various nature of reality. A speculative philosophy seeks to answer the question of what is real.Richards (2003) says, “Ontology, literally the science or study of being, is concerned with the nature of reality and their

stances” (p. 34). The philosophers, who are inclined to ontology, discuss ‘what reality is’ and

‘what it means’. The problem in the debate regarding the nature of reality is a matter of the human mind rather than the reality per se.

My stance in this study is primarily to have a perspective with the statement ‘there is no ultimate reality’. It changes according to the context where it belongs. Therefore, instead of searching for eternal truth, I attempted to utilize my knowledge collected going through various materials during the process of my research. I believed that the truth is ever-changing:

what is true today may not be true tomorrow. Hence, my ontological positionality in this

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study is that the social world hardly exists independently of individual subjects and that it is accessible to us only through respondents’ interpretations.

Therefore, my social constructivist assumption is constructive or relative. Meaning is created out of multiple realities, individuals, and groups from various realities under different

circumstances. In this study, the trafficked returnee women and girls' livelihood practices have been analyzed concerning their experience of trafficking and prostitution. Their responses were different because they were from different backgrounds. They defined the brothel as a hell. As a result, this study found variations in reality about livelihood practice.

However, they were brought into one place for the sake of the study.

4.1.2Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with theories of the nature of knowledge which on ‘howness’: how knowledge is created and transmitted (Dash, 1997).

Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2002) join with Dash when they write, “Epistemology concerns the very bases of knowledge- its nature and forms, how it can be acquired and communicate to another human being” (p. 6). These definitions mean that people acquire knowledge from experience, logic, reason, intuition, and indisputable authority, but they are different from person to person.

I collected different livelihood practices and experiences of the trafficked returnees. My study was guided by pragmatism because I believed that knowledge was based on experiences and observations. I used a pluralistic approach to gain knowledge about the topic. As a qualitative researcher, I chose pragmatism as a way to acquire knowledge.

4.1.3Axiology

According to Dash (1997), "Axiology is the branch of philosophy that specifies the nature of value, the kinds of values and value worth possessing. It seeks to answer the fourth general philosophical question – what is of value? What we desire, we value." Based on the very definition, a value of interest to one person hardly corresponds to that of other persons. In my research, I found different data, and responses based on my participants. My axiological assumption was that knowledge is not transferred; it is constructed. I discovered the

knowledge myself considering my respondents’ views. Therefore, I collected the data on the pragmatic ground through interviews and analyzed them to create my axiological stand.

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4.2 Interpretive Paradigm: social constructivism

A paradigm may be viewed as a set of basic beliefs (Guba and Lincoln, 1985; Richards, 2003). It means that researchers must be very clear about their base on which they can start their thinking. In this regard, Richards (2003) says, “Research paradigm tells a researcher about his\her research position and what the implication of such stand might be” (p. 33). My research was guided by the interpretive paradigm within qualitative research approach.

Creswell (2003) states that qualitative research begins with an assumption, a worldwide one, and the possible ways the theoretical lens and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups, ascribe to social or human problems (P.36).

I used the interpretive paradigm in my research. The interpretive paradigm believes in multiple realities, which may change according to time and context. In interpretive research, however, my stand is much flexible. Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2002) say that reality is multi-layered and complex. In my research, I investigated different approaches to livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal.

4.3 Methodology

The methodology is defined by different scholars in different ways. Nilsen (2008) stated that

“Methodology is a concept often used synonymously with the term method. Whereas the term

‘method’, in most cases, refers to procedure or technique for gathering evidence” (p.82).

Similarly, the method is simply a systematic process of discovering new sufficient details and information about a particular subject matter so that anyone reading it would be able to replicate the study in a significant way, (Cone &foster,2002. p.85). According to Kaplan (1964), the methodology helps us understand the broadest possible terms, not scientific

inquiry. It refers to the procedure of getting knowledge and it includes a collection of theories, the concept of ideas (Harding, Nilsen, 1987). Cohen, Manion, and Morison (2002) say, ‘The methodology aims to help us understand in the broadest possible terms, not the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself” (p .45). Methodology refers to a range of approaches used in education research to gather data that are to be used as a basis for inference,

interpretation, and prediction. I preferred a qualitative method therefore, the data were collected through interviews. According to Yin (2011), the qualitative research studies the people’s lives in the real world condition covering the different views, perspectives,

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contextual conditions, contributing insights into existing or emerging concepts (p.7). Since I want my study to be rich in understanding the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women; I prefered a qualitative research approach. Richard (2003) opines, “Qualitative research studies human actors in natural settings, in the context of their ordinary, everyday world, usually focuses on a small number of individual, groups or settings and employs a range of methods to establish different perspectives on the relevant issues” (p. 10). Marvasti (2004) says, “Qualitative research provides detailed description and analysis of the quality, or the substance, of the human experience” (p. 7). To complete my research, I used interviews as a tool to collect the data. I believed the tools helped me to find all the necessary data for my study. Therefore, I selected the interview method to find the livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women of Nepal.

4.4Sampling, Selection of the Location and Research Participants

4.4.1 Criterion

I managed to find the participants for the interviews through different channels: personal acquaintances, friends and organizations like Maiti Nepal, OREC, and many others. I visited the places many times, collected the possible number of participants, and finally selected five of them randomly.

This study was carried out based on the information based on five trafficked returnee women in Nepal. The participants were selected based on purposive sampling that involves searching for cases or individuals who met a reliable criterion in my study. According to Silverman (2005), “purposive sampling allows us to choose our case because it illustrates some feature or process in which we are interested and demand that we think critically about the parameters of the population we are studying and choose our sample case carefully on this basis” (p.129).

In this regard, I want to explore the perceptions and practices of returnees within the

periphery of Nepal. I found this area best suited for my specific needs of examining to what extent the trafficked returnee is aware of the overall concept of cultural skills and also to understand their motivational strategies toward extensive cultural development. However, it does not represent the wider population. Secondly, in this location, I can visit all research participants easily so that relevant data will be captured more effectively because in the words of Yin (2011), “when selecting the participants, you should deliberately interview some

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people whom you suspect might hold different views related to your topic of study” (p.88).

Finally, I found some similar research works carried out in Nepal, but no research work related to my topic has, as yet, been carried out in Nepal. Thus, this would be a contribution to the field of social work. This study provides a broader understanding of the actual situation of women trafficking in Nepal. While selecting the participants of my study of women

trafficking, the livelihood aspect has been given more priority. It aimed that they would be the ones who possessed better ideas and concrete perceptions about the overall concept of women trafficking based on their long experiences. Also, the basis for the selection was our

(researcher and the research participants) professional relations, their experience, acceptance, interest, and location of residence. Although the total sample size was relatively small, the selected number permitted me to generate enough variety and depth of data.

4.5 Data Collection Procedures: Interview

As I mentioned earlier, the interview is the major tool for data collection in my research. In this study, the participants were the trafficked returnee women and girls and they were

interviewed several rounds of interview sessions gathering information. The participants were interviewed without using the interview guidelines prepared before the researcher went to the field. The guidelines have been attached to the appendix. “The relationship between the researcher and the participants is not strictly scripted. No questioner is containing the

complete of the questions to be posted to a participant” (Yin, 2011). The interview questions were prepared in mental framework of trafficked returnee women and girls, who previously underwent the trauma of being trafficked and had the experience, understanding, opinion, and beliefs and practices of in their context. The qualitative interviews specifically verbalized questions as posed to any given participants differ according to the context and setting of the interview (Yin, 2011). However, “the qualitative researcher does not try to adopt any uniform behavior or demeanor for every interview. Rather the qualitative interviewee follows a

conversational mode and interviews itself will lead to a social relationship of sorts, with the quality of the relationship individualized to every participant” (Yin,2011, p.134). Following the above-mentioned definition, I did not fix any rules and regulations for the interview.

Every interviewee gave her interviews according to her experience and context of the society.

The interview was conducted based on two-way conversation, following the mood of the participant. These interviews were audio-recorded so that their stories were saved the way they were narrated. Similarly, I also preferred the open-ended interview to elicit data from my

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respondents. The open-ended interview consists of open-ended questions that elicit personal responses from the respondents. In this regard, Silverman (2010) defined, “interview studies which are based on a relatively small number of cases and use open-ended questions are usually treated as for an example of qualitative research” (p.201). The interview consists of open-ended questions so that the respondents had the opportunity to elaborate on their responses.

4.5.1 Sensitive interview

Besides the process of qualitative interviews, I also followed the process of sensitive interviews. Development of an interview schedule is advised, especially for novice researchers, but it should be used flexibly as a guide, incorporating ideas of how best to phrase questions and how to move from broader issues (emic) to more specific and sensitive (etic) topics(Dempsey et al., 2016). Based on the above mention method, participants were requested for an informal meeting so that they could be explained the purpose of the interview in detail. I went to meet them according to their advice which avoided the danger of gender problems during the interview. However, some of the participants changed their time and place. I had to come back without having the interview since they could not find time to meet at the time they had fixed earlier. In such cases, they set up a schedule for other days to their convenience. Some of them invited me to their workplace for the interview. Some others called the researcher at their secret place. According to Smith et al., (2009), a researcher's role is that of the active listener and in the case of vulnerable participants, it is often preferable to set aside the structure to fully concentrate on the participants’ needs instead (Dempsey et al., 2016). The onus is on the researcher to be sufficiently familiar with the interview questions in advance so as not to rely on the schedule during the interview(Dempsey, Dowling, Larkin, Murphy, & health, 2016). As the process entails, I played the role of the active listener by listening to their stories and helped the situation. Similarly, a predetermined schedule of questions in front of the researcher was off-putting to participants and made the interview more formal and less conducive to open and free-flowing discussion (Dempsey, Dowling, Larkin, Murphy, & Health, 2016). I had not fixed the ready-made question for the interview but I was well prepared for the open conversation. According to Smith et al., (2009), “The participant has experiential expertise and should be the sole focus of the researcher's attention” (Dempsey et al., 2016). By listening intently to the participant's story, the

researcher conveys an interest in what the participant is saying and facilitates the conversation

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to flow freely (Dempsey et al., 2016). In the same process, I asked the participant to describe the story of their life at the beginning of the interview. The story created a broad space and flexibility for the free conversation.

4.6 Data Analysis

According to Yin (2012), “analyzing the qualitative research does not follow any cookbook, neither is it undisciplined” (p.177). It is done in a flexible process. Creswell (2003) clarifies the process of data analysis as making sense out of the text and image data, which involves the preparation of the data for analysis, conducting analysis, moving deeper and deeper into understanding the data, representing the data and making an interpretation of the larger meaning of the data (p. 183). While going through the above definitions, the data analysis is the process of finding a conclusion of the research in different stages. In this regard, Yin (2012) suggested five phases of the data analysis process in qualitative research. They are compiling, disassembling, reassembling, interpreting, and concluding.

It involves transcribing interviews and typing of the narratives. In this phase, I read through all the data to get a general sense of the information and to reflect on its overall meaning. I analyze and interpret the interview data simultaneously. I read thoroughly each interview carefully and sort them out to see if there were any incomplete questions or issues which could be discussed more in detail. I began a detailed analysis of the coding process. I coded thematically. The themes have been discussed below. Finally, I conducted a personal

interpretation of the practice, perceptions, and understanding of the cultural integration of my participants.

After working with the raw data, my study adopts Yin’s version of the data analysis method, as discussed above, to analyze the data for livelihood practices of trafficked returnee women in Nepal. I sorted out my field note collectives from the fieldwork and the data and refined these notes. The entire process includes: a. coding. Arranging and categorizing. Exploring intersection, d. rearranging. Explaining and describing, finally summing up with. Analytical interpretation. This entire process is done based on perspectives, relationships, patterns, and themes explored in the data.

Livelihood Practices of Trafficked Returnee Women in Nepal

Date: 1 Sep2020 Total number of pages: 57(+14)

Course code: Name: Bigyan Bahadur Karki

SO 345S Candidate no: 326898

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Significance of the Study

1.3 Purpose of the Study

1.4 Research Questions

1.4 Delimitation of the Study

,

1.5 Organization of the Study

1.6 Chapter Summary

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Defining Trafficking: A Conceptual Framework

2.2 Trafficking and Prostitution

2.3 A Human Rights-Based Approach to Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Women

2.4 Empirical Research Studies

2.5 The Research Gap

Chapter III

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1Theories on Livelihood: Main Concepts

3.2 Strengths and Solution-focused Approaches such as Social Work

3.3 Solution-focused Brief Therapy

3.4 Chapter Summary

CHAPTER VI

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Philosophical Considerations

4.2 Interpretive Paradigm: social constructivism

4.3 Methodology

4.4Sampling, Selection of the Location and Research Participants

4.5 Data Collection Procedures: Interview

4.6 Data Analysis