Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres
Gender Awareness in the Subtitling from English into Spanish of The Bridgerton (2020): a Re-Vision of
Sexism
Aina Maria Costa Prieto Grau d’Estudis Anglesos
Any acadèmic 2020-21
DNI de l’alumne: 43481242H
Treball tutelat per Caterina Calafat Ripoll
Departament de Filologia Espanyola, Moderna i Clàssica
Paraules clau del treball:
Audiovisual Translation (AVT), Gender Awareness, Sexism, Role of the Translator, Feminism.
Memòria del Treball de Fi de Grau
S'autoritza la Universitat a incloure aquest treball en el Repositori Institucional per a la seva consulta en accés obert i difusió en línia, amb finalitats exclusivament acadèmiques i d'investigació
Autor Tutor
Sí No Sí No
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Abstract
The language usage used in AVT is still questioned by many scholars who put the stress on the sociolinguistic implications that the role of translation may have in maximising, minimising or neutralising stereotypes regarding sexism. This issue emerged in the 1970s and it is still present due to the gender awareness developed nowadays. This paper aims to question and analyse from a gendered approach the translation from English into Spanish of the series The Bridgerton (Folkson 2020), taking into account the original novel The Duke and I (Julia Quinn 2000) and arguing that the role of the translator may contribute to create and propagate gender stereotypes — disseminated through films, series, and media — opposed to the 21st century feminist ideas. This gender perspective analyses the language usage focusing on cultural and sociolinguistic aspects when Romance languages are being translated from Germanic languages, such as English. On account of these two important facts, this work outlines the main examples of the problematic about cultural and sociolinguistic features regarding sexism in the Netflix original series. The paper concludes that there are differences which may lead to propagate stereotypes that might contribute to guarantee the permanent sexist ideology. Nevertheless, although translations mainly follow an established sexist pattern, contemporary translators are decoding this sexism that may be hidden under a black veil and, by doing so, they are ensuring a process of gender awareness, a crucial approach in translation for feminist theories.
Keywords: Audiovisual Translation (AVT), Gender Awareness, Subtitling, Role of the Translator, Feminist Translation.
Index
1. Introduction……… 5
1.1. Importance of AVT and the Role of the Translator………. 6
2. Aims.……….. 6
2.1. Original Novel and Netflix Original Series The Bridgerton.………….…………. 7
3. Theoretical Frame……….. 8
3.1. Gender Awareness in Translation………..……….. 8
3.1.1. The Canadian School of Feminist Translation………….……….. 10
3.1.2. The Bechdel Test………..….. 10
3.2. Sexism in Translation……… 11
4. Methodological Frame………. 12
5. Analysis of Subtitles and Discussion: from English into Spanish………….….…….…… 12
6. Conclusions……….………. 20
7. Works Cited……….………. 22
1. Introduction
Over the past decade, the production of audiovisual translation, as a result of the resurgence of the technological era and the Internet network, has undergone an increase which, consequently, has derived in the globalisation of different cultures. This fact has originated huge interest in the study of audiovisual translation discourse following a gender perspective and, therefore, it has been raised a debate which questions and re-vises the unbalanced representations of the females and males figures by using sexist linguistic patterns (De Marco 2016, 314). It has not been until the 21st century that the scholars have established “a direct link between gender and AVT” (2016, 315). Alicia Ricart and Gora Zaragoza agree with the idea that there is a need “to improve extralinguistic skills and become more sensitive to issues related to gender, race and stereotypes” (2020, 421). Nevertheless, it should be bore in mind that “AV content is designed for target audiences” and that translators are “guided by their own intuition, speculation and self-constructed image of an intended, or ideal, end-user”
(Božović 2019, 81-82).
Thus, translating a text into another language may involve a series of problems for the translator due to sociocultural and linguistic differences. As Petar Božović stated, following Pedersen’s classification of the three types of Elements of Culture (ECs), “[t]ranscultural are those which are assumed to be known by both the source and target culture as part of the encyclopedic knowledge, monocultural are those which are assumed to be unknown by most of the target culture members and as such pose a challenge for translators, and […]
microcultural […] which are source-culture bound and unknown to quite a number of members of source culture, also posing a […] challenge for translators” (2019, 84). The re- examination of these translations is necessary not in terms of correctness, but in terms of a critical gendered perspective. The encounter of Translation Studies (TS) and Gender Studies (GS), an intersection which gave birth to the Canadian school of feminist translation amongst many others, will benefit both disciplines since the critical review is one of the many feminist contributions, and it has as aim to “[cast] doubt on [the scientific and humanistic disciplines]
supposedly neutral and objective nature and revealing the fact that they actually follow patriarchal criteria (albeit to varying degrees)” (Castro 2009, 2).
1.1. Importance of AVT and the Role of the Translator
To discuss AVT, there is the imminent necessity to focus on the role of the translator. The translator has different roles such as “negotiator”, “inter-cultural mediator”, and “interpreter”
(Bassnett 2005, 87) which may interfere in the creation of stereotypical patriarchal constructions (Zaragoza and Ricart 2020, 425). The way in which these stereotypes are
“intentionally constructed” in audiovisual media “has a strong impact on the audience’s perception of reality, on their demands for future releases and, in general, on their interpersonal behaviour and the relationships they establish in the social environment” (De Marco 2006b, 8). Descriptive studies stated that translators play an active role in the translation process — not just involving the translation product — and also questioned the translation techniques used to carry out the linguistic shift from one language to the other without interfering in the source text (Castro 2009 2). Moreover, they commented on the active participation that the translators should have since they must be aware of the existence of different readings and interpretations of the same text (2009, 3).
In this process of translating, translators can compare languages in linguistic and cultural terms and, by doing so, promoting the awareness of cultural differences since translators do not simply translate an original text into the target language (Zaragoza and Ricart 2020, 423). Furthermore, as mentioned before, gender and translation are closely related in AVT by virtue of the power that translators have “regarding the impact on how gender issues may be understood within a social system” and, consequently, translators should be “context-sensitive” and “attend non-linguistic aspects” (2020, 425). By doing so, translators will be able to do a re-vision of the established regulations and break with the old standards which were built upon a basis not involved in highlighting existing sexual differences and established gender stereotypes.
2. Aims
The present project aimed to analyse the subtitles of the original Netflix series The Bridgerton (Folkson 2020) and their translation from English into Spanish as an attempt to investigate if the translation creates an opportunity to disseminate sexist behaviour. This series, set in the 19th-century, contrasts characters which are deeply rooted in a society built on patriarchal values with others which oppose the established hegemonic masculinity. The marriage market
is the central focus that unites the whole plot and on which springs a dichotomy between feminist vindictive discourses as opposed to more conservative ones. The result of the translator’s decisions gives birth to translations that, as a general rule, are usually adapted to the sociolinguistic aspects of the target context and, thus, reinforcing specific stereotypes such as sexists points of view. These discussions and dialogues between characters and how they are translated from English into Spanish are of interest to study in order to detect the pattern that the translator, Paula Mariani, has followed and whether if the sociolinguistic implications of the source text converge on the target text.
2.1. Original Novel and Netflix Original Series The Bridgerton
As Linda Hutcheon claims, “art is derived from other art; stories are born of other stories”
(2006, 2) and, thus, this Netflix series The Bridgerton is an adaptation of the novel The Duke and I, written by Julia Quinn (2000). Two decades after the publication of this romance, Shonda Rhimes decided to produce this series, which had a strong impact on the audience.
This series has been subject to criticism since it has caused very different opinions from the audience due to the controversial topics that it explores. Amongst all of them, rape, hegemonic masculinity, and feminism may be underscored. However, it is quite impossible to do a literal adaptation as it is to do a literal translation, that is why these two disciplines are usually compared between them (Hutcheon 2006, 16). Hutcheon alleges that translations and adaptations are “re-meditations” as a result of their nature of “intersemiotic transpositions from one sign system (for example, words) to another (for example, images)” and continues by saying that “[t]ransposition to another medium, or even moving within the same one, always means change or, in the language of the new media” (2006, 16). For this reason, adaptations and translations can never be considered nor compared to the original source since they are a kind of reformation, as a kind of “palimpsest” (2006, 33). Continuing with this approach, Frederic Chaume agrees with this idea since “translation owes its existence to the original” and concludes with the idea that adaptations are, to some extent, translations (2018, 100).
Since the series is an adaptation, it has a great deal of coincidences and, especially, differences with the novel. Adapters first appropriate the original text, to later interpret it and, finally, create another completely different product. Being the adaptation different from the
original novel, the translation — in this case, when producing the subtitles — differs even more from the source. Following this line, Hutcheon sees translation as a process of
“transmutation or transcoding, that is, as necessarily a recoding into a new set of conventions as well as signs” (2006, 16) in a new medium. Both the romance and the series is set between the19th and 20th century in the Regency era, focusing on the London’s high class society in the season when the young girls, also known as debutantes, are introduced in the marriage market to find a husband and, consequently, being accepted in society (Valentini 2020). The novel starts with the Bridgerton’s family tree establishing the descendants: Anthony, Benedict, Colin, Daphne, Eloise, Francesca, Gregory, and Hyacinth. Quinn wrote a book for each descendant, and the character on which the first season of the series is based on Daphne (Book 1).
Nevertheless, the series is not just about this female character. The plot focuses mainly on the ruse and, consequently, on the romance of Daphne Bridgerton and the Duke of Hastings, Simon Basset. Also, it introduces a huge amount of backstories which are not present in the original novel. For instance, Anthony’s lover, Siena Russo, is only present in the series. Moreover, Rhimes decided to place important female figures of power at the top of the hierarchy (Valentini 2020) as Queen Charlotte, who is in charge of the ruling of the country while her husband, King George III, is in bed for an illness which is not revealed. It must be explicitly mentioned that Rhimes, the producer, also made the choice to introduce black cast in the series belonging to the ruling elite. By doing so, the Duke, the Queen and Lady Danbury are just a few examples of this fact. The involvement of Anthony in Daphne and the Duke’s ruse and the Duke’s continuous stuttering are other examples of events that appear in the novel but not in the series, and it makes the Hutcheon’s idea of adaptations as palimpsests even more noticeable.
3. Theoretical Frame
3.1. Gender Awareness in Translation
According to Vanessa Leonardi and Annarita Taronna, gender awareness in translation
“implies that the translator’s ‘responsibility’ should not be limited to a mere (re)writing of the source text” (2011, 380). Therefore, translators need to implicate themselves as cultural mediators in the power of “legitimate political project towards the respect of identities, as a
dismantling action of political cultural and minority inequalities, as a destructor of stereotypes shadowing human encounters” (Brufau 2011, 11). Olga Castro agrees with Leonardi and Taronna’s idea of the necessity of gender awareness in translation and states that “from TS it is also possible to propose a new rhetoric of translation that deconstructs the hierarchies between sexes and texts, and which replaces cliché language with a terminology that is capable of transmitting the active game of identities that converge in translation” (2009, 6).
Following these lines, the translation itself can also contribute to expose the translation’s ideology and illustrate the ideology hidden behind the translator’s choices (Leonardi and Taronna 2011, 383).
The study of gender has become a solid discipline in Translation Studies which is known nowadays as Feminist Translation Studies (Federici and Leonardi 2012, 184). It is aimed to “reverse the role traditionally played by both women and translations in society by challenging the patriarchal and sexist language which has dominated the world for years”
(2012, 184). This is done by supporting the “rethinking and subversion of hierarchical paradigms in Translation Studies” seeing the act of translating from a gendered perspective, which encourages the usage of dynamic strategies in order to never assume the subjectivity of women as a stable category (Leonardi and Taronna 2011, 380). Consequently, feminist translation does not solely focus on lexicon but on “discourses”, “ideologies” and
“identitions” that can be legitimised or normalised (Brufau 2011, 6).
Furthermore, three main names are at the forefront of the development of “the more academic feminist critique of film” (Von Flotow and Josephy-Hernández 2018, 297). These three names are Mulvey, Silverman and Lauretis, whose work “provides separate but related examples of early gender-conscious criticisms of the audiovisual products that continue to drive cultural and socio-political representations of gender, where gender is considered as the socio-cultural behaviour that performs or demonstrates a certain sexual identity; it is behaviour that is learnt through repetitive practice, training, and mechanisms of social control” (2018, 298). Mulvey’s psychoanalysis of scopophilia, Silverman’s study of the women’s voice in cinema as a way of assigning traits reinforcing sexual differences, and Lauretis’s focus on the representation of lesbian entities in films (2018, 299) have “paved the way for a plethora of studies on different gender questions” (2018, 300). However, “relatively little attention has been paid to questions of gender in the language of audiovisual products,
which is, after all, what is translated, and what translation studies research needs to focus on”
(2018, 300).
3.1.1. The Canadian School of Feminist Translation
The Canadian school of feminist translation has “identified translation as the combination of a practising theory and a theorising practice from which to examine cultural and ideological issues” (Castro 2009, 3). Consequently, the 21st century feminism is “closely related to cultural and identity issues in an almost political battle to transport the political claims of women and/or minorities” (Brufau 2011, 6). Translation has changed its focus and, now, it comprises a great deal of sociolinguistic issues, such as feminism. In this regard, Spain is seen as “a strong centre of theoretical and practical production” in the fight for equality (2011, 10).
Additionally, the stress is put on analysing not only literary texts, as it has been mentioned before, but also audiovisual products and, thus, audiovisual translation (Castro 2009, De Marco 2006a). This new focus on translation can be conceived as the ‘third wave feminist translation’ (Castro 2009, 4). Thus, gender awareness is a necessity when talking about audiovisual translation because of the implications that this latter concept involves.
3.1.2. The Bechdel Test
For the sake of this work, it has been analysed the translation into Spanish of the series The Bridgerton, which is in English, in order to analyse from a gendered perspective the translator’s choices. This is done by focusing on whether the text, in this case the subtitles, maximises, minimises, neutralises or omits certain information from the original source due to the possibility of disseminating certain hegemonic perspectives, as if they were universal by reason of the readers’ unfamiliarity of the source text (De Marco 2006a, 182), by cause of gender blindness (Zaragoza and Ricart 2020, 424). However, the “identification of the text type is a fundamental aspect to take into account in any text analysis approach to translation”
(Federici 2012, 185).
In this sense, the Bechdel Test offers “an unusual combination of empirical data and political judgement” (Selisker 2015, 505). According to Scott Selisker, “the Bechdel Test gives films a pass or fail rating based on three linked criteria” (2015, 505). This criteria and, consequently, the origination of this test, was introduced by Alison Bechdel in her comic strip
Dykes to Watch Out For in 1985 (Von Flotow and Josephy-Hernández 2018, 297). In this strip, she stated the three criteria to recognise a non-misogynist text: “One, it has to have at least two women in it who, two, talk to each other about, three, something besides man”
(Selisker 2015, 505). As Von Flotow and Josephy-Hernández state, “[t]his cartoon and the feminist socio-cultural and political requirements it delineates have been widely applied by film critics and viewers alike [since] is used to both assess audiovisual products from a feminist perspective and explain the failure of certain products from that same point of view”
(2018, 297). Following this criteria, The Duke and I (Quinn 2000) can be partially considered a misogynist text because of Daphne’s monotonous topic of discussion: marriage. On the basis that the original source might be considered anti-feminist, the adaptation of this novel to the confessedly feminist series The Bridgerton (Valentini 2020) may involve unwanted consequences such as discourses which follow a hegemonic patriarchal ideology.
3.2. Sexism in Translation
As in the social sphere, sexism is still latent in translation by cause of the hegemonic values that have persisted through time thanks to their perpetuation in different levels and from diverse sources. Castro points out different sexist metaphors that compare women with translation such as Gilles Ménage’s 17th century coined concept Les belles infidèles and Derrida’s translation contract, similar to a marriage covenant (2009, 5-6). The former expression describes translations as women, who “will be unfaithful (infidèles) if they are beautiful (belles)” (2009, 5). Leonardi and Taronna agree with this idea that women have been considered as subordinate components of society (2011, 399) by reason of patriarchal values.
The latter term uses a classical sexist rhetoric by proposing a “translation contract (like that of marriage) by which the translation marries the original in order to be comple(men)ted in another new text that guarantees the survival of both” (2009, 6). For this reason, there is the need of sociolinguistics, which is “concerned with the uses of language and the values associated with such uses” (Nida 2012, 44).
The audience do not commonly question “standard patterns of behaviour”, “certain expressions” and “attitudes” which are portrayed through the screen and, consequently, they become “part of an interculturally shared background” (De Marco 2006a, 182). Language reflects a culture and gives access to the ideology of that culture (Nida 2011, 43). If a sexist
type of language is portrayed through the screen — and in its translation — and the target audience do not decode the message that has been shared, it can be considered that “cinema, and screen translation, may have the power to monopolize the audience’s conscience and subtly contribute to inculcating and perpetuating unpleasant assumptions, patriarchal stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes that become more and more difficult to uproot from our minds” (De Marco 2006a, 182).
4. Methodological Frame
This present study has analysed the translation from English into Spanish subtitles of
“Diamond of the First Water” and “Shock and Delight”, the first two chapters of the series The Bridgerton. This has been done by using Lucía Molina and Amparo Hurtado’s theory of translation techniques, which has allowed to analyse the textual elements and the translation product in relation to the original one (2002, 498). The analysis has been carried out by extracting the subtitles of the discussions and dialogues of interest and comparing the English original text with the Spanish subtitling from a feminist perspective based on gender awareness. English terms that needed a further explanation, a definition, or a translation, have been searched on the Collins dictionary (2015), the Merriam-Webster dictionary (2015), and in the two etymological dictionaries Webster's Complete Dictionary of the English Language (1886) and Oxford Dictionary of English, while Spanish terms have been searched on the Real Academia Española dictionary (2014).
5. Analysis of Subtitles and Discussion: from English into Spanish
Firstly, it will be analysed the first episode “Diamond of the First Water”. In this first sample, Anthony is talking with Siena, his lover (Van Dusen 2020, 16:30).
English Spanish
Anthony: Someone must guard my poor sister from the bucks and pinks, ensure her virtue remains free of any kind of defilement.
Siena: Daphne is fortunate. Every woman is not afforded such gallant protection.
Anthony: Every woman is not a lady.
Anthony: Alguien debe protegerla de los indeseables y asegurar que su virtud siga intacta.
Siena: Es muy afortunada. No todas las mujeres gozamos de esa protección.
Anthony: No todas sois damas.
Both characters maintain a conversation about his responsibility of finding a proper husband to his sister, Daphne, who has just entered the marriage market. Being married in that period of time was synonym of having a place in society and in the patriarchally constructed hierarchy. Consequently, Siena, Anthony’s lover and a mere opera singer — very well-known for not being married yet at her age —, is not seen as a “lady” since she has lost her chastity until marriage and, thus, also her honour. This term is also kept in the Spanish translation of the English subtitles. Nevertheless, the translation of the word “lady” has been tested to be problematic. Zaragoza and Ricart conducted a study in which students are asked to translate
“ladies” (2020, 430). Different options were suggested, such as nenas, chicas, señoritas, niñas (430). In this case, the translator has made the choice of translating it as damas, a term which refers to a polite woman that preserves her chastity (RAE). For this reason, Siena is not considered a “lady”. Furthermore, Anthony refers to the pretenders as “bucks”. In the Regency Era, a “buck” was a man of high status who was very sociable, but in negative terms (Webster). This type of man would enjoy many pleasures such as the company of different women, in other words, all kinds of debaucheries. This word is translated into Spanish as indeseables, which also possesses negative connotations (RAE). However, the image of a libertine man is partially lost in the translation as a result of the technique used, which is a translation technique of generalisation. A term that could fit better in this translation due to its meaning could be Don Juan, defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary as “a legendary Spaniard proverbial for his seduction of women” or “a captivating man known as a great lover or seducer of women”. From a very specific term of the Regency Era, there is no equivalent word in Spanish and the translator has decided to resort to a generalisation.
The second example is taken from a daily publication in which its anonymous author, under the pen name of Lady Whistledown, is talking about the young ladies as jewels (Van Dusen 2020, 27:57), treating them as objects and, thus, perpetuating the commodification of women.
Lady Whistledown is referring to the young girls as objects, more precisely, as jewels. This metaphor of women as jewels is even present in the title of the episode — and it will be
English Spanish
Lady Whistledown: As such, an even rarer jewel of only the most remarkable brilliance, fire, and luster has been unearthed.
Lady Whistledown: Aunque tenemos una nueva joya de un brillo, lustre y encanto excepcional.
maintained throughout the whole series — and perpetuated through time. Furthermore, this objectification is also held in the Spanish subtitles since the word “jewel” is kept. On the other hand, “unearthed”, which means “discovered” (Collins), has lost its main sense in the Spanish subtitling. The objectification and the passiveness of the young girls is lost in the Spanish subtitling since the apparition of this gem is by itself, not as in the passive voice of the sentence construction in the subtitling in English “has been unearthed”. In this example, the translator has chosen to apply modulation since the Spanish subtitles change the point of view as the jewel has appeared by its own and not as a result of someone discovering it. Also, it is a reduction since the target text has omitted the unearthing of this jewel because, as it has been commented, the translator portrays it as if it has appeared by its own.
In this example, as in the previous illustration, it can be found again the objectification of the young girls. Daphne and her brother Anthony are riding a horse in the park while they speak about Lady Whistledown’s publications and how this can damage Daphne’s honour (Van Dusen 2020, 31:55).
In the original subtitles, Daphne classifies herself as “goods” which have been “damaged” due to Lady Whistledown’s comments and opinions in her daily publications. This is a clear example of the objectification of women that Daphne has in her most depth of the subconscious because of the education that girls received from birth. She sees herself as an object which will not be desirable by men since it is damaged by virtue of external comments.
Women’s vulnerability in front of external derogatory remarks is emphasised by this example, which also highlights the importance of honour, chastity and purity that girls must preserve in order to marry and, consequently, be socially accepted. In the Spanish subtitles, the author has made the decision of omitting such objectification. By contrast, the translator has chosen interesarse as the verb and has remarked that the problem is on the comments that Lady Whistledown has written down about Daphne, and not on Daphne herself. The translator has chosen to use modulation and, by doing so, she avoids the objectification of the young girl since she has changed the focus. She uses a more neutral term for “damaged goods”, and translates it as comentarios.
English Spanish
Daphne: Tell me, what others should ever want such
damaged goods now? Daphne: ¿Quién va a interesarse por mí con esos comentarios?
In connection with the previous one, we find this sample of how young girls are seen in that era, which is based on a patriarchal ideology. This example is taken from Daphne and the Duke’s debate while having dinner (Van Dusen 2020, 39:48).
Again, this sample illustrates the social norms that the females had to conform in that era.
Chastity and neatness are just a few examples of the behaviours associated with women.
Furthermore, there is a noticeable difference in the translation from English into Spanish. In English, there is the adjective “neat,” while in the Spanish translation it is translated as quisquillosa, meaning “fussy”. This adjective has bad connotations as it is defined by the Collins dictionary as someone “concerned with unimportant details” and “difficult to please”.
Thus, the Spanish translator has decided to define Daphne as someone difficult to please and, instead of just attach to the translation of the original text, change the word “neat”, without any negative overtone, for “fussy”. By doing so, Mariani has applied the lexical modulation technique. The word “neat” is translated as quisquillosa, providing a negative overtone which is not present in the original text and, although it can be made explicit from the context, this term does not always imply something bad, as quisquillosa does.
In the following example, Lady Whistledown is writing about the Duke’s decision of never getting married (Van Dusen 2020, 33:28).
In the English subtitling, there is the presence of the word “brazen”, which is defined by the Collins dictionary as someone who is “very bold” who does “not care what other people think about them or their behaviour”. In this context, it is used to provide a negative connotation to the word “matchmaker”, since the Duke did not want to get married and all the mothers
English Spanish
Duke: And I anything but interested in you, the eldest sister of my oldest friend, yet another recent subject of a certain writer. Chaste, neat, desperate.
Daphne: I shall have you know…
Duke: To marry, that is.
Duke: A mí tampoco me interesa usted, la hermana de mi viejo amigo y el último objetivo de cierta escritora.
Casta, quisquillosa y desesperada…
Daphne: Sepa que…
Duke: …por casarse.
English Spanish
Lady Whistledown: This author wonders which brazen matchmaker shall rise to such a challenge, for this competition is well underway.
Duke: You know, I do suppose if it were not for an overzealous mother at every corner, this time of year in the city would not be so very dreadful.
Lady Whistledown: Esta autora se pregunta qué casamentera estará a la altura del reto, porque este concurso ya está en marcha.
Duke: ¿Sabes? Si no fuese por todas esas madres histéricas, mi estancia aquí no sería tan terrible.
(“matchmakers”) were seeking a proper husband for their daughters to get married and have a name in the social sphere. Focusing on the Spanish subtitles, this word is omitted by using modulation, since this negative overtone given in the source text to the matchmakers is obviated. As it can be seen in this situation, the figure desiring for a stable family, offspring, and money is the female, while the male avoids every chance of getting married and have a family. Furthermore, the use of the word “dreadful” introduces a negative feeling of fear since, in the Collins dictionary, it is defined as something “very bad or unpleasant”. This adjective involves something obnoxious to escape from and, in this case, escape from the marriage. In contrast with the last example of modulation, this negative connotation is kept in the Spanish subtitling. Moreover, “overzealous” is derived from “zealous”, defined as
“supporting something that they believe in very strongly” (Collins). In English, although in this case it has a negative meaning, it can have either good or bad connotation since it depends on the context, while the translator has decided to translate the word in Spanish as histéricas, which has a clear negative overtone (RAE). Consequently, this sample is another example of modulation due to the change of perspective from one language to the other.
The following illustration is an extract of a debate between the Bridgerton family discussing Lady Whistledown’s identity (Van Dusen 2020, 37:53).
In this illustration, it can be seen both brothers discussing the gender of the author behind the name of Lady Whistledown. Both agree about the idea of a woman not being able to have such a good sense of humour, intellect, power, or even having important personal connections or being allied with the elite in order to acquire truthful information. In the series, Eloise is an important character since she gives hints about what, in the twenty-first century, would be defined as feminist. In this example, she expresses her discontent about the commentaries of her elder brothers by asking a rhetorical question about the gender of the lustre and very famous writer Lady Whistledown, which is also kept in the Spanish translation. Both Colin and Eloise’s contribution to the dialogue, the translation into Spanish has suffered lexical modulation after being translated “Who knows if Whistledown is even a she?” into Quizá no
English Spanish
Colin: Who knows if Whistledown is even a she?
Anthony: Fair point.
Eloise: Because she is simply too good to be anyone but a man?
Colin: Quizá no sea una mujer.
Anthony: Cierto.
Eloise: ¿Demasiado buena para ser una mujer?
sea una mujer, and “Because she is simply too good to be anyone but a man?” as ¿Demasiado buena para ser una mujer?. In both utterances, the sex is interchanged from the source text into the target language. By doing so, the Mariani puts the stress on the female sex instead of on the male one, as it does the English subtitles.
The last example of this episode is taken from the moment in which Lord Berbrooke tries to assault Daphne in the Dark Walk and she punches him in his face. After Daphne having “knock[ed] the climp flat out” (Van Dusen 2020, 49:57), the Duke, who has witnessed what has happened, talks with Daphne (Van Dusen 2020, 50:32).
In the original language, the fault of not finding a man is on Daphne. She blames herself for not being able to find a husband, while in the translated text here is no such a blame on herself
“If I am unable to secure another offer”, since it is the man, in this case, who is in charge of the offer of marriage (Si no recibo otra oferta). In the English subtitles, Daphne characterises herself as “unable” to find another marriage proposal and, thus, blaming herself for not being capable to secure her future with a husband that will give her a place in society. Once again, here we have an example of modulation as a result of the change of perspective and point of view on the culpability of not finding a husband.
The second episode, “Shock and Delight”, starts with the reading in voice-over of the publication of Lady Whistledown. After the “last night’s soiree at Vauxhall” (Lin 2020, 03:24), Lady Whistledown writes her daily scandal sheet summarising the tumultuous gossips of the night before (Lin 2020, 03:49).
Many times in the series, the Duke is referred as a “rake”, a synonym of womaniser or libertine and, thus, embracing negative connotations. A libertine man is known for dedicating his life to gamble, wine and women. This term is defined by the etymological English dictionary Oxford as “man of dissipated or loose habits” in negative terms. Nevertheless, in the translation of this adjective, Mariani decided to translate it as soltero de oro, a positive
English Spanish
Daphne: If I am unable to secure another offer, there
may be no alternative. Daphne: Si no recibo otra oferta, quizá no me quede más remedio.
English Spanish
Lady Whistledown: The illustrious debutante was seen dancing not once, but twice with the season's most eligible and most uncatchable rake, the Duke of Hastings.
Lady Whistledown: La ilustre debutante fue vista bailando no solo en una, sino en dos ocasiones con el deseado e inalcanzable soltero de oro de la temporada, el duque de Hastings.
characterisation for him for remaining single, as a fact to be proud of and become more desirable for women. It should be borne in mind the examples provided before which illustrate the conditions that women should fulfil in order to be considered as “ladies” and be accepted in society. In this example, there is lexical modulation since the translator changes the point of view. In the source text, “rake” has negative connotations since it is defined as a man “rather immoral, for example because he gambles, drinks, or has many sexual relationships” with women (Collins). In Spanish, a soltero de oro is a man who is desired by a great number of women and who is unobtainable, a trait which makes him even more desirable and unique (RAE).
In the following scenes, Lord Berbrooke decides to scold the Duke. Berbrooke asks him to talk again with Anthony Bridgerton in order to withdraw the Duke’s declaration about Daphne punching Berbrooke’s face (Lin 2020, 28:59).
This is a clear example of how the English subtitles continue using the idea of “women as objects” as a result of the use of adjectives such as “loose” and “damaged” when describing Daphne. These adjectives are generally used to refer to objects, and not to persons (Collins).
In the Spanish translation, this distinction has not been made since the adjectives used are pura and inmaculada, which are common adjectives to describe people (RAE), mainly women in that era, because of the importance of honour and the preservation of purity. Again, another example of modulation is found here since the Spanish translator decides to change the point of view when describing women, putting aside the clear commodification of women in the original text.
This example is taken from the moment in which Lord Berbrooke interrupts the picnic afternoon to threat Anthony (Lin 2020, 36:58) because of his decline of Berbrooke’s marriage proposal.
English Spanish
Berbrooke: For if I had already known she was loose
and damaged, not intact, I never would have... Berbrooke: Porque de haber sabido que no era pura e inmaculada, jamás habría…
English Spanish
Berbrooke: For it if were you, I imagine you would have instructed your sister to take better care than to encourage certain attentions while alone with me on the Dark Walk at Vauxhall.
Berbrooke: Porque si fuera usted, ya le habría advertido a su hermana que no le conviene actuar como cuando estuvimos a solas en Vauxhall.
In the English — and original — subtitles, Lord Berbrooke poses the stress of culpability on Daphne, suggesting that she should avoid encouraging “certain attentions” as she did when they were alone in the Dark Walk. The Spanish translation has suffered a reduction since this place is not mentioned in the subtitling. The responsibility of Berbrooke’s sexist and violent behaviour is thus assigned to Daphne, putting himself as a victim, falling into the clutches of the young girl. Contrastingly, in the Spanish translation, there is no presence of such
“encourage” verb, although Berbrooke advises that it would not be convenient for her to behave how she did (ya le habría advertido a su hermana). Furthermore, the use of the verb
“instructed” in the original subtitles shows how girls were treated in that era. Young girls were educated to fit in society and preserve their chastity and, thus, their purity. In that way, their mother and father — or brothers — “instructed” them to behave properly and, in this example, it is clearly stated. However, this verb establishes superiority of the person who instructs over the one instructed. This air of superiority is not strictly retained in the Spanish translation since the translator has made the choice to translate it into advertir meaning
“aconsejar, prevenir” (RAE) thanks to a modulation process and, thus, changing the point of view. This warning action does not imply any superiority of one subject over the other and this intended meaning in the English subtitles of educating Daphne is omitted in the Spanish translation.
This following example is taken from a conversation between Daphne’s sister, Eloise, and Daphne herself about Eloise’s fear of marrying and having children after their mother almost have died while having their sister Hyacinth (Lin 2020, 52:42).
As in the previous example, once again, the young girls are placed in the role of children being taught how to behave and how to live in this patriarchal society in which a woman will only have a place if she is married. As it has been mentioned before, the usage of this verb (“taught”) embeds a hierarchy in which women are placed at the very bottom, subordinated to all other subjects, who are going to teach them and mould their behaviour in a way which will be acceptable and will fit in society. Oppositely, the Spanish translator has decided to use again the verb advertir, providing the sentence a sense of warning or advising instead of teaching or educating, not giving to the sentence an educational context but a warning, and,
English Spanish
Daphne: Yes, Eloise, there are perhaps darker turns in
these woods than we’ve been taught to expect. Daphne: Sí, Eloise. Es posible que hallemos más oscuridad de la que nos han advertido.
consequently, omitting the hierarchy established in the original English subtitles. Due to this fact, this example could be seen as modulation, since the focus and the point of view have been changed from one language to the other.
Finally, as last sample, it has been taken the moment in which Daphne and the Duke are dancing in the middle of the salon with petals all around the floor while they are talking about their “ruse” or “negotiation” (Lin 2020, 59:32).
After her brother and, in broader terms, society in general took control of her life, Daphne decides to take the reins and be the one in control of her own decisions. In order to do this, she talks to the Duke and tells him that she will not let things — their ruse — go wrong. In the English subtitles, the idea of her life being in control of external people is reinforced. The young girl will “finally” put an end to her passiveness, because she “must” do it in order to have a bright future. In the Spanish subtitles, the adverb “finally” has been omitted. This omission, being a process of reduction, reduces the emphasis of ending this period of decontrol and mayhem in Daphne’s own life, which has been ruled until now by external figures, mostly men since they have the ruling power in women’s lives and even in society.
6. Conclusions
The study of audiovisual translation from a gendered perspective dates back to the 21st century. As the Canadian school of feminist translation does, this perspective focuses mainly on language and how it is used to spread gendered stereotypes. In this study it has been stated that the translator plays an important role in the implementation of gender awareness in the act of translation. If this is done, the translator breaks the old standards imposed in this field and advocates for attitudes that follow the feminist prospect. After having carried out the present study, the findings report that there are wide disparities in the transition from the English into the Spanish subtitling. In most of the samples provided, the author of the Spanish subtitles, Mariani, has decided to subvert certain lexicon and grammar structures that are against the feminist translation approach. Thus, Mariani has reduced the hegemonic message of male dominance and the objectification of women that the English subtitles indirectly disseminate throughout the text. Nevertheless, this technique has not been followed in all the
English Spanish
Daphne: I must finally take charge of it. Daphne: Debo tomar el control.
examples found since some translations have turned out to be even more sexists than the original utterance. A more accurate translation considering gender awareness should be done in order to entirely fulfil the feminist prospect. The objectification and passiveness of women are, to some extent, omitted in the Spanish subtitles. Although not fully suppressed, the removal of these sexist texts in the Spanish subtitling makes it more difficult to disseminate the hegemonic common belief amongst the target audience. For this reason, the hegemonic socio-cultural background that is shared throughout the screen is reduced in terms of patriarchal beliefs. As already stated, sexism as a cultural practice has derived as an interculturally shared background as a result of audiovisual translation. Further research could be done to examine to what extent does audiovisual translation reinforce the human sexist behaviour and which techniques should be followed to eradicate this problem, which could not be achieved in this study due to time and space constraints.
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