The Mechanics of Scientific Writing

The Mechanics of Scientific Writing

W.S. Warner, Ph.D.

Writing Assistants

Tuesday – Connor Cavanagh

Wednesday - Kayla Graham

The Writing Centre

3

floor Tivoli

Open Tuesday and Wednesdays in June

Program

Day 1

Analysis –critical thinking from note taking to brainstorming

Structure –outlining: analytical, comparison & contrast, argumentative Day 2

IMRAD – standard components of a publishable research manuscript Citation – guidelines for referencing and how to avoid plagiarism

Day 3

Tables and Figures – how to make your writing understood

Precision and Punctuation – how to make your writing accurate Day 4

Clarity – six principles of clear writing Day 5

Cohesion – how to make your writing fluid Concision – how to make your writing tight

Analysis

“A kind of laziness pulls me back into my old ways… this will be hard work”

R. Descartes (1641)

Analysis

• The process of putting together an argument.

• Interprets evidence to support, test, refine a claim.

• The chief claim in an analytical paper is the thesis.

• Without solid evidence a thesis is merely opinion.

• Progressive activities built on logic.

Critical Thinking Activities

•Managing time

•Structuring thoughts

•Detailing logically

•Drafting

•Revising

•Editing

•Making connections

•Thinking contextually

•Mapping ideas

•Analyzing

•Evaluating

•Critiquing

Reading Reflection

Outlining Writing

What annoys supervisors…

and editors?

1. Failing to answer the question 2. Poor language

3. Too much description, too little critical analysis

Greasley, P. and Cassidy, A- (2010). When it Comes Round to Marking

Assignments: How to Impress and How to ‘Distress’ Lecturers. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 35: 173-189

Favorable Elements

• Analysis of reading rather than description

• Critical debate supported with appropriate literature

• Critical comment on the literature

– “Author A takes this view in contrast to author B”

– “What they both fail to account for fully is…”

– “An alternative interpretation can be offered by…”

– “Author C does not account for the problematic nature of…”

• Engaging with the topic at a deeper level

– Clearly demonstrating an ability to see different perspectives – Present these perspectives within the assignment

– Develop reasoned conclusions

Critical = Vital

• Not criticizing – respond don’t react

• Creative solutions – thinking outside the box

• Often adequate/practical solution – not ideal

• Add value – your learning, others knowledge

• Supervisors want

– To hear your ideas, based upon research

– Not reproduce their lectures and assigned reading – Not uninformed speculation

– Your stance

Where do you stand?

• Papers that convey a writer’s stance are usually strong

• Should you be in the foreground?

• Academics vary on personal pronouns: I, me, we, us, our

• Focus on the topic clearly and where you stand

We wish to suggest a structure for D.N.A. This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. (Watson and Crick, 1953)

When to incorporate evidence

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance –

– Then add your own ideas

• Present evidence that contradicts your stance

– Then argue against (refute) that evidence – And therefore strengthen your argument

• Use sources against each other

– As if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition

• Use quotations to support your assertion

– Not merely to state or restate your claim.

Use of Evidence

Weak

Today, terrorists are too self-centered.

Most cells no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next

explosion (Bush, 2008). Everything is about what they want.

• Evidence not related to the claim

• What does the claim (self-

centeredness) have to do with eating together?

• Writer does not explain connections

Strong

Today, most terrorists are too self- centered. Even membership within a terrorist organization, or even a cell, doesn’t have much influence. Evidence shows that most members of terrorist cells no longer live together, preferring instead to live solitary lives – and

spontaneously explode (Bush, 2008).

Living together enables people to

connect; however, that connection has become less valued, as terrorism

begins to prize individual glory over shared ideology, promoting self- centeredness over group identity.

How to take a stand

• Balance hard criticism with hard analysis

• Linguistic tools reveal your analysis

– Introductory verbs: seem, indicate, suggest – Thinking verbs: believe, assume, suggest – Reporting verbs: claim, find, confirm, assert – Uncertainty verbs: will, may, might, could

– Evaluative adjectives: inaccurate, misguided, limited

– Relationship words: furthermore, similarly, hence, therefore

Scholastic writing summary

• Be an active reader

• Try to think outside the box

• Avoid giving too much description

• Engage in critique as you write about your sources

• Identify your own stance as an analytical writer

Decartes Critical Thinking Method

Meditations on First Philosophy in which are demonstrated the Existence of God and the distinction between the Human Soul and the Body

(1641)

Errors of Understanding

– Doubt everything

– Examine other people’s ideas – Skepticism is useful

– Critique your own ideas – Analyze texts

Errors of Academic Writing Failing to

– talk about your ideas – revise your thoughts – edit your writing

– see beyond the surface level

Critical thinking for scientific writing

• Critical (Vital) reading

– Locating appropriate sources

– Selecting the best sources for your task – Evaluating your sources

• Critical (Vital) planning

– Understanding your task – don’t assume – Fulfilling your task within the timescale – Developing your own timescale

• Critical (Vital) writing

– Critiquing your own work

– Working with others to revise your writing – Revise, revise, revise

Where to begin?

Read

• Discuss the topic with others

• Do not fall under the spell of the printed word as authority

– Remember that the author of every text has an agenda.

– Do you agree with the author?

– Does the author adequately defend her argument?

– What kind of proof does she use?

• Put away that highlighter – take notes!

– Highlighting a text is good for memorizing —it does not encourage critical reading.

– Your goal as a reader: put the author's ideas in your own words.

– Stop thinking of these ideas as facts and start thinking of them as arguments.

• Hidden agendas for effective arguments.

Critical

• Analyze

• Evaluate: previewing sources

– Skimming for topic: intro, conclusion, topic sentences – Scanning for relevance: data, statistics, facts

• To support your own writing

• Need to have a clear goal: your stance or learning a theory

• Critique: rejecting sources

– Be prepared to reject sources you find confusing – Trust your instincts if you feel source not useful – Badly presented material, not complex arguments – Persevere with well-written challenging text

Reading

Quoting Secondary Sources

• Select material that is important, not trivial

• Use quotation marks – otherwise…

• Use exact words and short passages

• Use sparingly – overuse shows:

– you did not clearly understand subject – lack evidence and therefore pad

• Signal relationship to rest of discussion

Smith (2010, p. 32) suggests that most foreign aid is based upon

“crude, abstract theory” not rigorous scientific investigation supported with tangible evidence.

Paraphrase vs. Quote

Quotation

Hein (2010) explains heredity in this way:

“Except for identical twins, each person’s heredity is unique” (p.28).

• Exact words of author

• Indicates speaker

• Surrounded by quotation marks

Paraphrase

One source explains that

heredity is special and distinct for each of us, unless a

person is one of identical twins (Hein, 2010, p. 28).

• Uses your own words

• Represents author’s view, not yours

• About same length as original passage.

When to quote?

• The writer’s words are especially vivid, memorable, or expressive.

• Expert’s explanation is so clear and concise that a paraphrase would be confusing or wordy.

• You want to emphasize the expertise or

authority of your source.

Paraphrase versus Summary

Why paraphrase?

• To demonstrate your understanding of a text

• To put into your own words without distorting the meaning

.

Bjørnsen (2009) argues that

although politicians have promised things will change, few people

criticize Norway’s National Health Service.

Why summarize?

• To demonstrate your knowledge of a wide range of sources

• To give a brief account of the

relevant points from whole texts.

Bjørnsen (2009) discusses the pressures on health workers not to speak out about poor

standards of care. He provides examples of professionals across Norway who were silenced when they raised concerns. Bjørnsen contrasts this reality with

Hansen’s (2001 ) theory that claims ‘gagging laws’ …

Use signal words

to introduce quotes and paraphrases

acknowledges adds

admits agrees argues asserts believes claims

comments concedes concludes

condemns

considers contends describes disagrees explains finds holds insists notes observes

points out predicts preposes reports says

shows

speculates

suggests

warns

writes

Critical

• Make connections

– What is your topic influenced by?

– What or how does it influence?

• Think contextually

– Explain your topic:

• What are the components?

• How is the topic like/unlike other similar topics?

– Trace events:

• What events have impacted your subject.

• How or why has it changed over time?

Reflection

But how?

Two problems

1. Too little information

– Feeling ‘blank’

– Lacking inspiration – Anxiety about a topic

2. Too much information

– Lost in the facts

– Overwhelmed by themes – Confused by relationships

Three solutions

1. Free-writing

2. Brainstorming

3. Clustering

1. Free-writing

• Start with a blank page

• Let thoughts flow without an ‘inner judge’

• Don’t worry about quality or style

• Set limit (10-15 minutes)

• Review for discoveries and insights

2. Brainstorming

• Note possible terms that emerge from the general topic

• Don't throw out what might not be a good idea.

• Group the items that make sense to you.

• Give each group a label.

– Now you have a topic with possible points of development

– Write a sentence about the label you have given the group of ideas.

– Now you have a potential topic sentence

• Arrange the groups in a logical flow of thought.

3. Clustering (Mind-Mapping)

show relationships

• Put the subject in the center of a page. Circle it.

• Move outward and write terms/phrases associated with nearby words.

• When finished

– link the words together into a map/web

– or identify clusters, forming groups

Structure

Until we get to the third outline we don't write a single sentence, it's all point form. By the time you get to the third one, you've got the thesis mapped out.

Associate Dean of Graduate Studies University of Western Ontario

Outlining

Why create an outline?

– Aids in the process of defining boundaries – Helps you organize your ideas logically

– Shows hierarchical relationships among your ideas

– Constructs an ordered overview of your writing

How to get started

1. Outline a plan

– 60% of writing process is outlining

– Binge-writing makes pleasurable working impossible – Writing for hours on end works against momentum

2. Plan an outline

– Segment complex thoughts

– Develop a series of logical statements

– Get the science (thinking) right first – sentence structure is relatively simple

Creating a detailed outline will help you write a first draft

that doesn't need too much re-structuring.

Before you begin

– Determine the purpose of your paper

• Explain

• Compare & contrast

• Argue

• Analyze

– Natural sciences easy – IMRAD

– Social sciences harder – How to solve the problem?

– Determine the audience – Develop thesis

• Statement put forward to be tested or maintained

• Long essay or dissertation involving personal research

How do I create an outline?

– Brainstorm: List all the ideas to include in your paper – Organize: Group related ideas together

– Order: Arrange material from general to specific – Label: Create main and sub headings.

Tip: It is easier to make changes on your outline, than on your written paper.

Outlining

Three Main Characteristics

Example: How to apply to university

I. Visit and evaluate college campuses II. Visit and evaluate college websites

A. Note important statistics B. Look for interesting classes

1. Coordination: Headings should have the same significance (value).

2. Subordination: Headings should be more general, while the information in the subheadings should be more specific.

3. Division: Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts Tip: 3-5 divisions, but not more than 7

General All-Purpose Outline

Uncertain about the design of your paper?

• Identify the subject

– Explain the problem

– Provide background information – Frame a thesis statement

• Analyze the subject

– Examine the first major issue – Examine the second major issue – Examine the third major issue

• Discuss and conclude your findings

– Restate your thesis and point beyond it – Interpret the findings

– Provide answers, solutions, or a final opinion

IMRAD Model for Field Work

If you are collecting data

• Introduce the topic

– Explain the problem

– Provide background information (references) – Frame a thesis statement or research question

• Methodology

– Describe research plan

– Instrumentation (theoretical/survey design) – Procedure and time frame

– Assumptions and limitations

• Results

• Discussion & Conclusion

– Restate your thesis and point beyond it – Interpret the findings

– Provide answers, solutions, or a final opinion

Model for a Comparative Study

For examining similarities and differences of two objects

• Introduction

– Establish Object A – Establish Object B

– Briefly compare the two – Introduce central issues

– Cite sources material on the subject – Present your thesis

• Body (choose one)

– Compare and contrast A and B, or – Discuss the central issues, or

– Discuss A and B relative to the central issues

• Conclusion

– Discuss the significant issues – Conclude

• rates the advantage of each object, or

• ranks one object over the other

Comparison and Contrast

In addition to organizing a paper:

defines a complex idea

relates one thing in terms of another:

The difference between rods and cones in sensing light Health benefitsof raw vs. cooked food

Peace policiesthat reject conflict vs. those that accept conflict

technique to structure paragraphs evaluates – show your original insight

Only similar items can be compared or contrasted.

The comparison/contrast must be supported by examples.

Compare or Contrast?

• Compare shows the similarities between at least two things

or

• Contrast shows the

differences between two things

• To inform

• To explain

• To analyze

• To evaluate

Brainstorm Venn Diagram

Alike

Write a Thesis Statement

• Review your data

• Decide to what extent you will stress

– Similarities – Differences

– Not necessarily balanced

• Create a thesis statement that reflects your decision

Weak Thesis Statements

NORAD and the Red Cross provided Norwegian aid to Haiti.

• They are both somewhat alike and somewhat different.

• One can see some similarities and some differences too.

• Both of them involve (only a single similarity, no differences).

Better Thesis Pattern

While both Norwegian foreign aid policies agreed that the Haitian government needed to play a role in emergency relief, NORAD

promoted a centralized federal authority to respond to long-term needs, while the Red

Cross supported a loose confederation of local

officials to react to immediate needs .

Compare/Contrast

Thesis techniques

Introduction’s last sentence: thesis statement

In order to determine which protein source is best suited for fish feed, Antarctic krill or Arctic herring, Aquafeed’s SWAG statistic analyzed the following criteria: buoyancy, starch content, and Omega-3 concentration.

In order to decide which vehicle to buy, a Honda Civic or BMW, the following criteria were used: price of the vehicle, average mileage, and price of insurance.

Subject: the criteria (The agent of the action is doing what?) Object: the vehicle

Pre-writing Chart

The number of boxes depends on how many points of you will include in your paper.

Object Price Mileage Insurance

BMW

Honda Civic

Block Method Outline

• Use the matrix to create an outline

• Rows or columns can be headings

• Boxes can be subheadings or paragraphs

• Two approaches

– Object based upon subject

• Object A versus B

• based on subjects 1, 2, and 3

– Subject based on object

• Subject points 1, 2, and 3

• sequentially applied to objects A and B

Column 1 Row 1 Row 2

Column 2 Row 1 Row 2

Column 3 Row 1 Row 2

A versus B

Rows are Headings

Objects (A & B) Outline Paragraphs

Object Subject 1 Price

Subject 2 Mileage

Subject 3 Insurance

A BMW

B Honda

Civic

2^nd

paragraph

3^rd

paragraph 1^st

Paragraph

Too much information for one paragraph?

Make subject points subheading paragraphs

Price Mileage Insurance

heading

BMW

subheading

2^nd paragraph

subheading 3^rd paragraph

subheading 4^th paragraph

heading

Honda Civic

subheading 5^th paragraph

subheading 6^th paragraph

subheading 7^th paragraph

Outline by Subject points

Columns are Headings

Intro. heading Price

heading Mileage

heading Insurance BMW

Honda Civic

3rd paragraph

4^th paragraph 2^nd

paragraph 1^st

paragraph

Point-by-Point Subject Organization

Here, the objects become subheadings

Intro.

Heading BMW

2

Paragraph

4

Paragraph

6

Paragraph

Heading

Honda Civic

3

Paragraph

5

Paragraph

7

Paragraph

Object Outline

I. Introduction

a) Justification b) Background c) Thesis

II. BMW

a) Price b) Mileage c) Insurance

III. Honda Civic

a) Price b) Mileage c) Insurance

IV. Conclusion

a) Emphasize Major Ties b) So What?

c) Evaluation

Subject (Point by Point) Outline

I. Introduction

a) Justification b) Background c) Thesis

II. Price a) BMW b) Honda III. Mileage

a) BMW b) Honda

IV. Insurance a) BMW b) Honda IV. Conclusion

a) Emphasize Major Ties b) So What?

c) Evaluation

Review

 Understand the purpose of the paper

 Select your topic

 Gather evidence

 Organize your thoughts

 Create a thesis statement

 Draft an outline

Writing a Formal Outline

• Using standard outline symbols

– Experiment with your computer’s outline features – Alphanumeric style: I, A, 1, a. (1), (a)

– Decimal: 1., 1.1., 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3…

• Writing topics with key words

• Writing sentences for each heading and

subheading

Using Standard Symbols

list major categories and subtopics

I.___________________ first major heading

A.___________________ subheading of first degree

1.___________________ subheading of 2

degree 2.___________________

a.________________ subheading of third degree b.________________

(1)__________ subheading of fourth degree (2)_________

(a)___ subheading of fifth degree

B. ___________________ subheading of first degree

Decimal Outline

1._____________

1.1.______________

1.1.1._____________

1.1.2._____________

1.1.3._____________

1.2.______________

1.2.1______________

1.2.2.______________

1.2.3.______________

2.______________

Phrase Outline

Use the format that works best, but be consistent.

• Noun

III. Senses

A. Receptors 1. Rods 2. Cones

• Noun phrases III. The senses

A. Receptors to detect light 1. Rods of the retina 2. Cones of the retina

• Verb phrase

III. Sensing the environment

A. Detecting the light

1. Sensing dim light with retina rods

2. Sensing direct light with cones

• Verb phrase without subject III. To use the senses

A. To detect light

1. To sense dim light 2. To sense direct light

Sentence Outline

• Advantages

– Entries can serve as topic sentences for paragraphs and speed writing – Reveals organization problems rather than hiding them

– Time invested pays off when writing your first draft Outline

Thesis: Warfare is triggered more by biological instincts than by cultural demands for limited resources.

I. Debate of the “noble savage” versus prehistoric warriors is neither new nor novel.

A. Early literature advocates intrinsic harmony and peace among tribes.

1. Rousseau argued for a noble savage in the 1700’s.

2. The Bible speaks of the Garden of Eden.

Subject/verb establishes logical direction of your thinking

Topic outline

1. Introduction

a) Traditional methods b) New methods

2. Method

a) Minimal growth conditions b) Under-cooled conditions c) Low temperatures

i. Organ cultures ii. Callus cultures

Sentence outline

Traditionally, plant germplasm is stored in seed conditions, arboreta, and so on.

New methods of storage now being explored are based on plant tissue culture.

Maintenance of tissue cultures under minimal growth conditions appears promising but has had little systematic study. Cooling plant cells/tissues to -40^o C holds possibilities but information on this method too is fragmentary. Storage in liquid nitrogen has been successful with organ cultures from 10 species. Callus cultures from a dozen other species have also been successful.

Relate Thoughts

Connect or change ideas

Words that make events happen in your reader’s mind

• To connect or compare

– also – as

– in the same way – like

– likewise – similarly – comparable – equally

– in addition

• To change or contrast

although but

even though however

on the other hand otherwise

yet still

conversely as opposed to different from whereas