From Stereotype to Stereotype: How the Process of Revoicing Affects a Character’s Identity

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Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres Memòria del Treball de Fi de Grau

From Stereotype to Stereotype: How the Process of Revoicing Affects a Character’s Identity

Camila Araceli Mercado Wandersleben Estudis Anglesos

Any acadèmic 2019-20

DNI de l’alumne: x7675826-J

Treball tutelat per Gabriel Dols Departament de Filosofia i Lletres

S'autoritza la Universitat a incloure aquest treball en el Repositori Institucional per a la seva consulta en accés obert i difusió en línia, amb finalitats exclusivament acadèmiques i d'investigació

Autor Tutor

Sí No Sí No

Paraules clau del treball:

audiovisual translation, queer, stereotype, revoicing, identity

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Abstract

This dissertation examines how the process of revoicing, be dubbing or voiceover, affects the portrayal of a character; in particular, homosexual characters. The analysis of three TV programmes, reveals the existence of a tendency to alter the voices of gay characters in order to adapt them to a stereotype. Revoicing consists on replacing the original soundtrack of a program for a soundtrack in target language. However, in this procedure, a person’s identity can be altered. The traits of someone’s voice are vital to define their personality, age, race, and emotions; specially pitch and intonation. Through pitch, one is able to determine people’s gender; voices can be more feminine or more masculine. Moreover, volume and rhythm are essential to express feelings and emotions; a higher pace and a high volume are more likely to express positive emotions rather than, for instance, sadness or worry. Yet, these features as well as the translation processes are deeply associated to stereotypes. Conventions and beliefs are present in many aspects of life; particularly, in the queer community where depending on their appearance, behaviour, and personality, they are expected to speak with a determined voice tone. The examination of the TV series Queer Eye, Sex Education, and Glee will show how the variations made in voices of the homosexual characters impact on their identities, and how the original version and the translated one convey their personalities differently.

Key words: audiovisual translation, queer, stereotype, revoicing, identity

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1. Introduction

One of the things that characterises the 21^st century is globalisation. Right now, the world is involved in a capitalist economy where borders are less and less defined. It affects every aspect of a person’s life; “we encounter the “global” in the clothes we wear, in the music to which we listen, the television programmes and films we watch, [and] on the internet sites we visit” (Storey 2010, 160). We are likely to be “better informed about “global” events that we are about “local events” (161). Technology’s fast evolution also contributed to this phenomenon because it facilitated the access to foreign materials and products through the Internet. For instance, focusing on television, it provided several platforms where one can find a wide variety of national and foreign programmes such as documentaries, reality TV or TV series. Most of the content that one watches is not local but foreign, and it comes mainly from the United States (Corcoran, 1999). However, it is not possible for every country to consume a product in its original language. Many productions are exported to places where the main language is, for example, Spanish, French or Italian. In this case, they undergo an audiovisual translation process which consists on translating a source language into a target language.

Streaming platforms such as Netflix, HBO or Amazon Prime offer TV series, films, and documentaries dubbed and subtitled, at least, in more than 3 languages per program.

Nevertheless, are these translations always reliable? Are they faithful to the original product?

Although Audiovisual Translation (AVT) “can be traced back to the very origins of the cinema, [it] has been a relatively unknown field of research until very recently” (Diaz Cintas 2009, 1). This discipline, which is a branch of Translation Studies, emerged as a field of study around the second half of the twentieth century. In the late 1950s and 1960s, brief publications regarding translation started to appear in journals and weekly magazines. Most of them were scattered and passed among professionals, and just a few works were published.

Then, from the 1990s onwards, it can be considered that Audiovisual Translation reached its golden age; there were many contributions and collective publications of prolific authors.

Moreover, there were several conferences organised on the topic (Diaz Cintas, 2009). Now, AVT is seen as an academic discipline; it went from being considered a minor area of specialisation to being an important field of research. Many universities offer audiovisual translation courses that deal with subtitling and revoicing processes such as voiceover, and dubbing. This area of study does not only include the processes but also gives a cultural insight.

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4 It is interesting to see how, in this discipline, many lines of research lead to study the impact that translation has on a culture. Many conclusions can be drawn by analysing the changes in language, voice, or scripts from source language to target language. This process is unavoidable because “both subtitling and dubbing imply cultural and linguistic competence”

(Nicolae 2018, 52). In translation, all products are adapted to the culture of each country, whether they are texts, films, or advertisements. This cultural adaptation allows stereotypes and beliefs to be perpetuated throughout time. It provides “the opportunity to negotiate how ideological messages are presented to local audiences and is therefore the site where global and local values and identities are negotiated” (Bernabo 2017, 68). Such stereotypical images are often related with gender, race, or religious beliefs. Even though in many occasions it can be overlooked, it is a fact that audiovisual products have a high ideological power. The content of many films or TV series can be manipulated in order to promote a certain set of values or beliefs, be they political or social (Cintas and Orero, 2010). Audiovisual translation, specifically revoicing, allows the imposition and perpetuation of stereotypes by changing the voices of the characters in order to make them fit their beliefs.

2. Methodology

This work will analyse the revoicing of American programmes released between 2009 and 2019. The revoicing of such TV shows, from English to Spanish, will provide study cases to analyse how stereotypes are imposed in this practice by replacing the original soundtrack with one in the target language. The specific focus of the discussion will be on stereotypes regarding the queer community. This dissertation will be based on the theory of Audiovisual Translation; it will be centred on the aspect of voice, and its importance in the processes of revoicing (dubbing and voiceover). Furthermore, it will study how voice alterations can affect a product; the changes generated when translating from the source language into the target language can fully transform the personality of a character. Moreover, introducing insights from Queer Studies, we will see what stereotypes are common within the queer community;

in particular, those concerned with male homosexuals. To accomplish the objectives of this paper, Netflix’s reality show Queer Eye (2018) will be first analysed to see how its hosts are portrayed through revoicing; if their identities are faithfully represented by the Spanish voice actors. Then, for comparison purposes, the TV series Glee (2009) and Sex Education (2019) will also be analysed to see if such stereotypes are also imposed on their homosexual characters. The analysis will be mainly focused on voice as a fundamental feature of

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5 characterisation. Aspects such as intonation and pitch are key to define a person’s identity.

The aim of this work is to show how in order to make characters fit into a cultural expectation or belief, identities can be changed through dubbing or voiceover. Attention has been drawn to the fact that gender minorities are stereotyped and generalised in a world where heterosexuality is the norm, and to the fact that television programmes serve as tools to perpetuate the status quo.

3. Theoretical framework

3.1 Revoicing and the important role of voice

It is said that audiovisual translation is only useful for those who do not have an understanding of a foreign language. However, people who do have control over a second language also find obstacles when watching foreign audiovisual productions. While recreating real life situations, TV shows can present dialectal variations, cultural references, fast paced dialogues, overlapping speech, and interfering noises that can difficult the comprehension of the content. Thus, “these factors contribute to making the translation of the audiovisual programme a necessity for the vast majority of viewers” (Díaz Cintas 2009, 4). Therefore, audiovisual productions go through a revoicing process which consists on replacing the original soundtrack with a new one in the target language. For instance, if an American program is exported to Spain, its original soundtrack in English will be replaced by one in Spanish, which is the case of the examples that are going to be analysed later. Revoicing has two sub-categories: the substitution of the original soundtrack can be total or partial. When the substitution is total, the process is known as dubbing; “the target viewer can no longer hear the original soundtrack” (Nicolae 2018, 51). Then, voiceover consists on overlapping the translation; the original soundtrack “is still audible in the background” (51).

It is of high importance that revoicing, either dubbing or voiceover, is done correctly.

One of the aims of television programmes is for viewers to feel identified with characters, storylines, or situations they see represented on screen (Diaz Cintas, 2009). This willingness from the viewer to find resemblances with fictional characters increases the power held by the media; audiovisual translation “is the means through which not only information but also the assumptions and values of a society are filtered and transferred to other cultures” (8).

Audiovisual products are one of the primary means that convey views on society regarding gender (masculinity and femininity), race, religion, or sexuality. Unfortunately, many times these perspectives can be manipulated, perpetuating in that way many stereotypes and

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6 convictions. Even though this can also be achieved with subtitles, revoicing plays a bigger role in this situation because through voice one can transmit many feelings and intentions. If someone is asked what use the voice of a person has, a person is most likely to answer that voice is used to communicate with others. Evidently, that is true; it could be said that that is its primary use. However, voice can also convey deeper meanings that are not implied in pronounced words but in its features. Although this aspect of a person is not always considered to be important, “voice is integral to an individual’s or character’s identity”

(Bosseaux 2015, 37). Voice goes beyond being a tool to communicate within a society; it is part of each human being, and it helps to develop a personality. Therefore, it is essential to take this statement into account when translating audiovisual productions. As it has been said before, revoicing consists on replacing the original voice of a character with a voice in the target language. Thus, in order to express the same emotions or attitudes, that new voice should be as similar to the original one as possible.

Voice and identity have been barely studied in multimedia, yet many studies show that voices provide rich information about an individual’s identity such as age, race, and their emotional state. What is more, these characteristics can be associated to gender and what is expected from masculinity and femininity. Voice is a fundamental part of someone’s identity (Bosseaux, 2015). Depending on manner, the sounds produced by someone’s voice can be classified as pitch, accent, and intonation. Different tones can indicate different meanings in words or sentences. According to Dolar:

the particular tone of a voice, its particular melody and modulation, its cadence and inflection, can decide the meaning. Intonation can turn meaning of a sentence upside down. It can transform it into its opposite. A slight note of irony, and a serious meaning comes tumbling down; a note of distress, and the joke will back-fire (2006, 21).

In particular, pitch and intonation can provide significant details about someone’s identity.

Pitch, which according to the Oxford English Dictionary is the “degree of highness or lowness of a tone”, is linked to gender. Stereotypes are deeply rooted to this feature; it is believed that women and children have a higher pitch while men, on average, have lower ones (Bosseaux, 2015). Because of social expectations, women usually find themselves in a difficult position. They do not know if it is best to use a low register which suggests assertiveness and intimacy (the latter is many times associated with the image of dangerous woman), or using a high pitch and risk being loud or belittled. It is said that female voices do

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7 not “convey security or authority” (De Marco 2006, 24), and that those qualities can only be attributed to masculine voices. On the other hand, men face a slightly different situation; they have a naturally low pitch, which as stated before evokes power or confidence. However, in certain circumstances, when a man’s voice is not as low as it is expected, his masculinity is questioned. In men, high pitches are associated to their sexuality - specifically, to homosexuality (Swanson, 2015). Nevertheless, this will be discussed in the following section of this dissertation. Moving on to intonation, it is mainly used to communicate emotions.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is “the rise and fall of voice in speaking, especially as this affects the meaning of what is being said”. These emotions are expressed through rhythm and volume; depending on the variation of that, they will show happiness, joy, carelessness, mockery, sadness, or worry (Bosseaux, 2015). For instance, if the pattern of the rhythm is fast, and the volume is high, the sentiments will be considered positive.

Nevertheless, as this declaration of emotions is linked to pitch, it is likely that they will be considered of higher or lower importance depending on the pitch used. In the same way, the use of a wrong tone or rhythm could cause a change in the meaning of an utterance (72).

Having seen to what extent does voice define someone individually and socially; it is worth considering what happens to characters’ identities in translation. As the soundtracks are going to be replaced, what is said and how it is said will be also changed. Voices are an important parameter; they are a fundamental part of performance and characterisation. In AVT, when going through the revoicing process, new voices should be carefully chosen because in the target language they can have a negative impact on the viewers; they can

“engage differently based on changes in voice” (Bosseaux 2015, 69). Moreover, stereotypes can be reproduced and perpetuated (De Marco, 2006). Although image is very important, and carries a great variety of messages and experiences, through voice, viewers can also learn characters’ point of view, thoughts, and feelings; thus, they “[get] an impression of who they are” (54). The essence of a person or a character can change if their voices are altered. Hence, it is crucial that directors choose the right voice talents. Although controlling the final outcome is unlikely, it is important to remain as close to the original version as possible in order to portray the same ideals.

3.2 Queer representation and their portrayal in translation

Television has not always been interested in representing minorities. Many racial groups, religions or queer communities were not portrayed in television programmes. However,

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8 thanks to social advances, these groups are now being represented; especially, queer people.

For those who are not familiar with this term, it has become “a compact alternative to lesbian- gay-bisexual-transgender”, it “foregrounds the belief that sexual identity is flexible” (Marcus 2005, 196); it rebels against the heteronormativity. LGBTQ civil rights movements, and requests for political and cultural representation helped the emergence of LGBTQ-focused programmes around the early 2000s (Tongson, 2017). Currently, streaming platforms and cable networks offer a variety of shows which include queer characters. For instance, the TV show Modern Family (one of the families is formed by a homosexual couple), or Orange is The New Black (some of the main characters are lesbian).

Even though this minority has now gained more visibility in television programmes, in particular male homosexuals; they are still subjected to many stereotypes. In the past, they have been portrayed as villains, full of self-hate, ill, or sexual predators (Barnes-Brus, 2005).

Thankfully, that image is not what we see on TV anymore. Now, they are mostly portrayed in a positive way; yet that is not entirely beneficial. Gay characters “[are] presented as effeminate and with qualities that are usually associated with heterosexual women” (Fasoli, Mazzurega, and Sulpizzio 2017, 4). For instance, their professions are mainly related to fashion, beauty, and wellness. Additionally, their hobbies are not usually those expected of men, like sports, but those associated with women, for example, activities that require being creative. Moreover, they are depicted as middle or upper-middle class consumers (Barnes- Brus, 2005). Although this classist classification can encourage their social acceptance, it only represents a small part of the community. Not all of them are effeminate, and not all of them belong to the middle or upper class. Taking into account that “television is one of the main ways through which individuals acquire knowledge” (Fasoli, Mazzurega, and Sulpizzio 2017, 5), multimedia productions should pay closer attention to present real-life characters and not reinforce social beliefs.

Unfortunately, queer stereotypes are not only limited to their image or behaviour but also to their voice. Until recently, research in the AVT field regarding queer theory had been scarce, and concepts and theoretical instruments were slowly integrated (Baer and Kaindl, 2018). Notwithstanding this, there exist now several studies that show how voice is used as a parameter to identify and define a gay character. Male homosexuals, stereotypically, are characterised by a “higher pitch and melodious flow, as well as swooning intonation, clipped tones, vocal fry, upspeak, and stretched sibilant consonants” (Bernabo 2017, 73). Frequently, when dubbing or doing a voiceover, the voices of gay characters tend to be manipulated in the target language to reach this convention. Within their community, people usually speak with a

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9 camp talk, a theatrical gay accent (Swanson, 2015) used to express special meanings in certain circumstances. This talk is a marker of identity, a stylistic device which they use to differentiate themselves from the mainstream. However, in television, it is used for

“caricatural purposes” which helps promoting stereotypes and prejudices regarding gay talk and manners (De Marco 2006, 26).

It is clear that queer visibility has increased in multimedia products, but they are used to perpetuate many stereotypes. It seems like homosexual men’s identities are only defined by how high their voices sound; in the same way, heterosexual men always talk in lower pitches to determine their sexuality and to prove their masculinity. Many male homosexuals do not have a high-pitched voice, yet when their original voices are replaced by the soundtrack in the target language, they change drastically. In numerous cases, this situation is linked to the image of the character; if they have a certain profession or their personalities are more extravagant than any other character, that will be reflected on their voices. This can often contribute to “the survival of negative stereotypes” (Valdéon 2010, 75) which many times provide humour in programmes. In the following section of this dissertation, three TV programmes will be analysed in order to present examples of the stereotypes reproduced by queer characters through voice, and how that, at the same time, is affected by their personalities.

4. Analysis

4.1 Queer Eye

Television offers a wide range of programmes and genres; currently, most of them include a variety of characters who belong to different spheres of society, and who are of different races and sexualities. Nevertheless, reality TV “[is] more conducive to introducing homosexuality into the mainstream” (Barnes-Brus 2005, 22), yet they also help the propagation of stereotypes. Queer Eye, released in 2018 in the streaming platform Netflix, is an American reality television series directed by David Collins. It is a reboot of a TV show with the same name and director; the first version was released in 2003. Both versions share the same characteristics; the only change is that the 2018 series feature five new hosts who, as the original ones, are also homosexuals. The objective of the program is to help people improve their lifestyles by changing negative habits and mindsets. The hosts, who are also known as the Fab Five, are in charge of the makeovers; they provide advice regarding different areas of the individual’s life, helping them see a more positive outcome.

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10 Even though the program has a positive concept, it promotes gay stereotypes in its original version as well as in the translated one. Although our analysis is going to be centred on the voices of the hosts in the source and target language, it is worth mentioning some aspects of their professional life. The Fab Five are all experts of different professions: Antoni Porowski is a food and wine extraordinaire; Tan France is a fashion designer; Karamo Brown is a culture and lifestyle extraordinaire; Bobby Berk is an interior designer, and Jonathan Van Ness is a hairdresser and grooming expert. Clearly, they all work in professions that are stereotypical of gay men (Keller, 2004), especially, Jonathan Van Ness. As it was stated before, many professions are associated, with being effeminate; therefore, they are not expected to be the professions of masculine men (Fasoli, Mazzurega, and Sulpizzio, 2017).

When analysing their voices, this situation will play a big role in the voices that substitute their original ones. To a certain extent, some of the characteristics of their voiceover is linked to their profession and their performance as hosts.

Because of the length of this dissertation, we will only analyse some of the episodes of this reality television program. From a general view, there is an obvious differentiation between the hosts. As it can be expected, not all of them have the same personalities; Antoni, Karamo, Tan and Bobby have more of a relaxed and easy-going personality. Regarding their looks, they have short hair, and they all dress in a masculine way. They wear jeans, t-shirts, shirts, and jumpers. On the other hand, Jonathan outstands because of his personality, appearance, and clothing. He is a long-haired extrovert who likes dressing in challenging ways; he wears skirts, dresses, crop tops, and sometimes he wears heels. In addition to this, he is a hairdresser, which is a profession that is not associated with being masculine. In the original version, all these aspects are not of much relevance because they are in control of their own characterisation. However, the voices in the translated version vary considerably because of these features. In the source language (English), regardless of their looks, professions, and personalities, the pitch of their own voices can be defined as low.

Conversely, in the Spanish voiceover, whereas four of the hosts maintain a voice similar to the original, Jonathan’s pitch is altered; his voice is high pitched, and his intonation holds a cheerful and careless tone.

As the translation is made through voiceover, the viewer is able to listen to the original soundtrack. Therefore, the difference in voices is clear from the first episode of the first season. There, Jonathan presents himself without hiding his identity or personality. When he addresses the first person they are helping (also known as hero), he does it in a very energetic way, making gestures and facial expressions. In the original soundtrack, despite using an

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11 extravagant vocabulary, his tone is rather low, not high. Moreover, his intonation varies depending on the situation. As it was explained, intonation expresses emotion. Therefore, when he meets the hero of that episode, his intonation shows eagerness; he is excited to know about his lifestyle. Then, when he advices the hero on his area of expertise (hairdressing), he sounds attentive; he wants to provide his best recommendations. Contrary to this, in the target language, Jonathan’s voice sounds different. His new voice matches with the stereotype.

Being outgoing, a male homosexual, and having a career on a profession associated with women, only leads to believe that his voice’s pitch must be high. Additionally, his intonation also changes to one that only denotes nonchalance. Nevertheless, his personality or profession should not be relevant factors for his voice to change.

Although this action is still not justified, in this specific episode, this variation may have not caused a negative impact on the viewer. However, in episode 6, season 3, the voiceover can provoke a negative reaction from those watching it. The man that they are helping has lost his wife to cancer. In the original version, one can see how Jonathan empathises with him; he explains that he has gone through the same situation twice. Thus, from his experience, he gives him advice on how to cope with the aftermath. In the English version, Jonathan restricts his camp talk; his vocabulary is more formal, and his tone remains on a low level since he is talking quietly (he is on the verge of tears). In addition, his intonation expresses seriousness and respect. Yet, in the translated version, he is perceived differently. As his keeps looking effeminate by wearing women’s clothes, and his extravagant behaviour is apparent for the majority of the episode, he sounds loud and careless. In this particular situation, his tone keeps being high and it is accompanied by a playful intonation that does not match with the grievous conversation they are having. This voiceover goes against the naturalness of the dialogue; choosing the wrong tonal pattern can change the whole meaning of an utterance. While originally, he is trying to convey his understanding of the situation, in the translation he sounds light-hearted. Hence, it should be vital to deeply investigate how the voice should sound (Bosseaux, 2015), and not to fulfil a stereotype to make a product more likeable.

With this example, it is more than clear that revoicing can affect characterisation.

Jonathan’s voice portrays two different persons: in the original soundtrack, he portrays a person that, despite his personality, knows how to act in serious situations. Meanwhile, in the translated one, he is made to represent an immature person; his camp talk is exaggerated. In the original version, his reception can be positive; people can identify themselves with his character and personality. Conversely, when listening to his voice in the target language, the

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12 public’s response can be negative. Especially, in the second episode analysed because he seems uncompassionate. Undoubtedly, he, as an individual, can come across as a loud and flamboyant person; however, he knows how to behave in certain circumstances. As it can be perceived in the original version of the episode, he knows how to regulate his own voice to communicate different emotions. Sadly, by changing his pitch and intonation in the voiceover, he is being generalised because of his sexuality and personality. Those qualities can only be represented by an obnoxious and high-pitched voice. By following a stereotypical pattern, they are constructing a totally different character (Bosseaux, 2015).

4.2 Other examples

In order to see if this pattern continues in other programmes, two more TV shows are going to be analysed. In both cases, we are going to examine if the voices of the homosexual characters are also altered.

The first program being analysed in this section is Sex Education (2019), created by Laurie Nunn. This show tells the story of different teenagers who attend the same secondary school. One of the main characters of this TV series is Eric who identifies himself as gay. He has a very outgoing personality, and he likes dressing with colourful clothes. Additionally, his hobbies include experimenting with make-up, and playing an instrument, both related with creativity. Once again, there exists a difference between the original and the translated version. In the first one, the character’s voice ranges between the low tones. Even though he is a little bit extravagant and likes being expressive, his voice never sounds loud or strident.

Moreover, his intonation goes accordingly to his emotions. If he is feeling excited, his intonation tones are a bit higher than his normal voice, and he speaks faster. On the other hand, if he is feeling sad, his intonation ranges between the lower tones of his voice. These characteristics of his voice can be appreciated throughout all the episodes of the series.

Contrary to this, Eric’s dubbed version meets the stereotype once again. During the whole series, his voice sounds high-pitched and his intonation spans between the higher tones when he expresses different emotions. As it has been seen before, with Jonathan’s vocal analysis, Eric’s dubbed voice sounds as it is expected of someone with such characteristics. His appearance and hobbies are more feminine than masculine, thus, a voice with high tones is expected. This situation is very similar to that of the Queer Eye’s host; their identities in the translated product are affected by the perpetuation of stereotypes. While in the original version Eric acts accordingly to his age, in the translation he is also portrayed as childish.

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13 Surprisingly, when analysing the TV series Glee (2009), created by Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk, and Ian Brennan; we find a completely different situation. This program tells the story of a group of students who join the school’s choir but, once more, we will only focus on its homosexual character, Kurt. Even though he embodies most of the male homosexual stereotypes: having a great interest in fashion, feminine hobbies, and flamboyant attitude, his dubbed voice does not follow the pattern showed in the previous analyses. Here, the situation is reversed. It could be considered that Kurt’s original voice does fit the stereotype; he uses camp talk with a very expressive intonation, and his pitch is in between the higher tones.

Unexpectedly, in the translated version, his voice sounds deeper than the original, and the tones span between the low ones. There is not a trace of his flamboyance or of his original personality. Despite being opposite changes (the voice goes from high to low), it still affects the identity of the character because it is also being misrepresented; his identity is being diminished. In spite of this, this specific example can be considered a positive influence for the representation of the community because it does not help the propagation of the stereotype. It “diminishes the stigmatization of the character by downplaying his stereotypical feminized speech patterns” (Bernabo 2017, 74). Certainly, the modifications made in the character’s voice are unfair; by doing that they are changing the original identity of the character. Yet, at the same time, they are not helping with the perpetuation of a social belief that all gay characters must sound loud.

5. Conclusion

All in all, this work has analysed, in general terms, how voice changes can affect a character’s identity. Based on the theoretical aspects of Audiovisual Translation and Queer Studies, it has been established that revoicing processes help to convey stereotypes, specifically those regarding homosexuality. By analysing three TV shows, it has been determined that the traits of an individual’s voice are vital to define someone’s identity. Thus, by altering characters’

voices between the original and translated versions, their personalities suffer detrimental effects. The soundtrack of a program carries great part of the message; therefore, the negative or positive impact of a character depends on this. In many cases, these variations contribute to the spreading of beliefs and the imposition of stereotypes. Although the translation of multimedia products has helped people to have access to new content, it has also preserved and fixed conventions and social expectations. In case of further investigation, it would be of

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14 great interest to see how this situation affects other aspects on an individual’s life such as ethnicity or nationality.

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