Department ofAnimal and AquaculturalSciences

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of nutritionally important components during processing of feed and the effects on animal

performance

Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Trial lecture

05.06.2009

Kari Lundblad

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rtment ofAnimal and AquaculturalSciences

Overview Overview

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1. Introduction Introduction

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2. Different processing technologies Different processing technologies

3.

3. Effect of processing on nutritionally important Effect of processing on nutritionally important

components components

4.

4. Effect of processing on animal performance Effect of processing on animal performance

5.

5. Conclusion Conclusion

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Introduction Introduction

Compound feed is a mixture of raw materials and feed additives Compound feed is a mixture of raw materials and feed additives optimized to meet nutrient requirements for animals

optimized to meet nutrient requirements for animals

Major advances in feed processing the past three decades

Shift from simple “grind and mix” strategy to hydrothermal processing

In Europe 80 –In Europe 80 – 90 % of the compound feed is pelleted90 % of the compound feed is pelleted

Various thermo mechanical treatments have become common for pig, poultry and ruminant diets

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Introduction Introduction

To predict the effect of processing on nutritional value of the To predict the effect of processing on nutritional value of the processed feed is a challenge for the feed industry and it is of

processed feed is a challenge for the feed industry and it is of great great economical importance

economical importance

Feed processing involves particle size reduction, mixing, addition of Feed processing involves particle size reduction, mixing, addition of heat, moisture and shear forces

heat, moisture and shear forces

Beneficial and detrimental changes in the physiochemical properties Beneficial and detrimental changes in the physiochemical properties of the nutrients, and in the bioavailability of nutrients take

of the nutrients, and in the bioavailability of nutrients take place place during different feed processing

during different feed processing

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Nutritionally important components

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

StarchStarch

NonstarchNonstarchpolysaccharides polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses,

(cellulose, hemicelluloses, ββ--glucansglucans and and pentosans

pentosans) )

ProteinProtein

Amino acidsAmino acids

Essential amino acidsEssential amino acids

Non essential amino acidsNon essential amino acids

FatFat

GlyserolGlyserol

MineralsMinerals

Macro and microMacro and micro VitaminsVitamins

Water -Water - and fat solubleand fat soluble

Enzymes

Anti nutrients

Various additives

Coloring and taste agents

Water

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Main emphasis in this presentation Main emphasis in this presentation

Focus on starch, protein, amino acids, starch, protein, amino acids, vitamins and enzymes and their changes vitamins and enzymes and their changes

during processing during processing

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Main emphasis in this presentation Main emphasis in this presentation

How does these changes affect pig, poultry How does these changes affect pig, poultry and ruminants performance ?

and ruminants performance ?

ADG, ADFI and G:F ratioADG, ADFI and G:F ratio

Nutrient digestibility and feed utilizationNutrient digestibility and feed utilization

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Different processing technologies Different processing technologies

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Feed processing Feed processing

MechanicalMechanical GrindingGrinding

ChemicalChemical

Alkali -Alkali - / acid treatment/ acid treatment

ThermalThermal

DryingDrying

ToastingToasting

MicronizingMicronizing

Hydro thermal Hydro thermal ConditioningConditioning

Cooking Cooking

Thermo mechanicalThermo mechanical

PelletingPelleting

ExpansionExpansion

ExtrusionExtrusion

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Feed processing Feed processing

MechanicalMechanical GrindingGrinding

ChemicalChemical

Alkali Alkali --/ acid treatment/ acid treatment

Thermal Thermal DryingDrying

ToastingToasting

MicronizingMicronizing

Hydro thermal Hydro thermal ConditioningConditioning

Cooking Cooking

Thermo mechanicalThermo mechanical PelletingPelleting

ExpansionExpansion ExtrusionExtrusion

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Mechanical processing Mechanical processing - -

grinding grinding

Reduction of particle size will increase both heat and moisture adsorptionReduction of particle size will increase both heat and moisture adsorption

Grinding of raw materials is needed to achieve a homogeneous mixing Grinding of raw materials is needed to achieve a homogeneous before further processing

Hammer mill is commonly used in NorwayHammer mill is commonly used in Norway

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Effect of mechanical processing on Effect of mechanical processing on

starch, protein and amino acid starch, protein and amino acid

Mechanical processing disrupt cell wall structures which makes cell contents more Mechanical processing disrupt cell wall structures which makes cell contents more

accessible for digestive enzymes

accessible for digestive enzymes -- may result in increased digestibilitymay result in increased digestibility

Starch :Starch :

Some starch granules in the mash will disintegrate during grindingSome starch granules in the mash will disintegrate during grinding

Some starch will be mechanically gelatinized during grinding (approx. 10%)Some starch will be mechanically gelatinized during grinding (approx. 10%)

Protein / amino acid :Protein / amino acid :

Not much affected during the grinding processNot much affected during the grinding process

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing

Thermo mechanical processing involves pelleting, expansion and extrusionThermo mechanical processing involves pelleting, expansion and extrusion

Increase moisture contentIncrease moisture content

High shear forces High shear forces

Increase temperatures Increase temperatures

High –High – Temperature –Temperature – Short -Short - Time process = HTST Time process = HTST

Expander Expander ExtruderExtruder

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing

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Petfood Fishfeed 60

Higher Max 35

→150 Extruder

Cattle Pig 20

High Max 18

90-130 Expander

All 20

Moderate Max 18

65-90 Pelleting

Use Retention

time, sec Shear

Moisture, % Temp, ºC

Processing

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Effect of processing on Effect of processing on nutritionally important nutritionally important

components components

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Gelatinization of the starch Gelatinization of the starch

Starch is built of glucose polymers amyloseStarch is built of glucose polymers amylose and amylopectinand amylopectin

In cereals starch is stored in granules organised in a protein mIn cereals starch is stored in granules organised in a protein matrix atrix

Processing leads to disruption of the molecular and granular Processing leads to disruption of the molecular and granular structure as a result of gelatinization

structure as a result of gelatinization

Starch gelatinization depends on :Starch gelatinization depends on :

Type of starchType of starch

Processing parameters Processing parameters

Interactions with other components in the dietInteractions with other components in the diet

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Starch gelatinization temperature (

Starch gelatinization temperature ( °°°° °°°° C) C) ranges of various starch sources

ranges of various starch sources

Starch source Onset temperature Final temperature

Wheat 58 64

Barley 51 60

Oats 53 59

Rye 57 70

Corn 62 72

Sorghum 68 78

Rice 68 78

Triticale 55 62

Waxy corn 63 72

Amylocorn 67 92

Potato 58 68

Tapioca 59 69

Horse bean 61 70

Faba bean 61 66

Pea 65 69

(Hoseney, 1998).

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Gelatinization of corn starch Gelatinization of corn starch

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www.oregonstate.edu

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Different thermo mechanical Different thermo mechanical processing affect gelatinization processing affect gelatinization

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80-100%

Extrusion

13-51%

Expansion

12-19%

Steam pelleting

Gelatinization of starch, % Processing

Zimonja, 2008

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Resistant starch (

Resistant starch ( retrogradation retrogradation ) )

Intensive processing and subsequent drying/cooling Intensive processing and subsequent drying/cooling may result in

may result in reassociation reassociation of gelatinized starch and of gelatinized starch and formation of starch that are

formation of starch that are resistant to enzymatic resistant to enzymatic digestion

digestion

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Effect of processing Effect of processing

on protein on protein

Temperature, residence time, moisture content and shear Temperature, residence time, moisture content and shear

forces during heat

forces during heat- - processing are the most significant factors processing are the most significant factors

affecting the extent of chemical modification of proteins affecting the extent of chemical modification of proteins

Feed processing can give either beneficial or detrimental Feed processing can give either beneficial or detrimental

effect on nutritional value of protein

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Phillips and Finley, 1986

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Positive effects of processing on protein

Unfolding and a mild denaturationUnfolding and a mild denaturation of proteins can make them more of proteins can make them more available for digestive enzymes and therefore improve the digest

available for digestive enzymes and therefore improve the digestibility ibility Thermal treatment can inactivate protein-Thermal treatment can inactivate protein-based nutritionally active based nutritionally active

factors by destroying the integrity of their structure and hence

factors by destroying the integrity of their structure and hence prevent prevent their activities

their activities

e.ge.g deactivation of protease inhibitors and lectinsdeactivation of protease inhibitors and lectins in plantsin plants

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Negative effects

Negative effects of processing on of processing on protein

protein

Reduced protein value by making the protein and amino acids Reduced protein value by making the protein and amino acids indigestible in the small intestine

indigestible in the small intestine

Heat sensitive amino acids: lysine, Heat sensitive amino acids: lysine, arginine, arginine, cysteinecysteine, , serine,

serine, threoninethreonine, , histidinhistidin, aspartic acid, , aspartic acid,

CrosslinkingCrosslinking reactions can occur between protein-reactions can occur between protein-protein, protein, protein

protein--lipid, proteinlipid, protein--carbohydrate complexes which may be carbohydrate complexes which may be resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis

resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis

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Maillard

Maillard reaction reaction

One of the most known is the One of the most known is the MaillardMaillard reaction, a non enzymatic reaction, a non enzymatic browning and flavoring reaction mainly involving the

browning and flavoring reaction mainly involving the εε-amino -amino group of lysine, and a reducing sugar group such as fructose, group of lysine, and a reducing sugar group such as fructose, glucose and

glucose and pentosespentoses

Favorable conditions for MaillardFavorable conditions for Maillard reactionreaction are high temperatureare high temperature and high shear, also moisture content, pH and time is important and high shear, also moisture content, pH and time is important

Negative for monogastricsNegative for monogastrics, but is positive for ruminants because it , but is positive for ruminants because it can i

can increasencrease rumenrumen bypassbypass proteinprotein

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Maillard

Maillard reaction reaction

Maillard Maillard reaction can be reaction can be devided devided into three stages: into three stages:

Early stage: no formation of coloured components Early stage: no formation of coloured components

Probably reversible both analytical and enzymatic (no problems)Probably reversible both analytical and enzymatic (no problems)

Advanced stage: a variety of reactions leading to the Advanced stage: a variety of reactions leading to the production of volatile or soluble substances.

production of volatile or soluble substances.

Risk of analytical reversible, but not enzymatic (big problems)Risk of analytical reversible, but not enzymatic (big problems)

Final stage: insoluble brown polymers are formed with no Final stage: insoluble brown polymers are formed with no nutritional value

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Effect of processing on vitamins Effect of processing on vitamins

and enzymes and enzymes

Native vitamins and enzymes are heat sensitive Native vitamins and enzymes are heat sensitive

It is commonly added heat stabilized vitamin and enzyme products, It is commonly added heat stabilized vitamin and enzyme products , which is more or less protected against intensive processing

which is more or less protected against intensive processing

It is recommended to apply the heat labile vitamins and enzymes It is recommended to apply the heat labile vitamins and enzymes in in liquid form after processing, post pelleting application, in ord

liquid form after processing, post pelleting application, in ord er to er to

avoid degradation avoid degradation

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Loss of vitamins during processing Loss of vitamins during processing

Feed processing may inactivate vitamins Feed processing may inactivate vitamins

Heat labile vitamins are vitamin A, B Heat labile vitamins are vitamin A, B

₁₁

, K , K

₃₃

and C and C

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_C ₄₀ ₈₅

40 20

K₃

50 15

B₁

30 10

A

Pelleting at 90 ºC Pelleting at 70 ºC

Vitamin

Average % loss of vitamins during pelleting at 70

Average % loss of vitamins during pelleting at 70ºC and 90 ºC (Pickfordand 90 Pickford, 1992), 1992)

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Loss of

Loss of phytase phytase activity due to activity due to processing

processing

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21 Steam conditioning, 95ºC, 185 sec

206 Steam conditioning, 90ºC, 120 sec

405 Untreated mash

Phytase activity, IU pr kg Treatment

Skiba

Skibaet al., 2001et al., 2001

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Effect of processing on animal Effect of processing on animal

performance performance

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Monogastric digestion

Pigs and poultry

Single stomachSingle stomach

Poultry: gizzard mechanically breaks down the feedPoultry: gizzard mechanically breaks down the feed Enzymatic digestion occurs in the small intestine Enzymatic digestion occurs in the small intestine Nutrients need to be readily available for the Nutrients need to be readily available for the

digestive enzymes digestive enzymes

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Ruminant digestion

Digestion of protein, starch and fibre, and production of microbial protein

Unbalance in rumen digestion will negatively affect digestion and production of microbial protein

Rumen bypass of starch and protein is important for animal performance

For maximal energy utilization of starch and proteins should be digested For maximal energy utilization of starch and proteins should be digested and absorbed in the small intestine as glucose and amino acids,

and absorbed in the small intestine as glucose and amino acids, because because digestion by enzymes are more effective than fermentation in the

digestion by enzymes are more effective than fermentation in the rumenrumen

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Particle size reduction

Particle size reduction - - pig pig

Fine grinding compared to coarse grinding:Fine grinding compared to coarse grinding:

improve nutrient digestibility and growth performanceimprove nutrient digestibility and growth performance

coarse grinding results in reduced growth performance for piglets and coarse grinding results in reduced growth performance for piglets and

grower

grower finishing pigs compared to fine grinding finishing pigs compared to fine grinding

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Pelleted, µm Mash, µm

87.5 85.7

84.6 83.3

84.1 79.6

75.8 77.6

GE

87.3 86.1

85.1 84.1

84.8 81.7

78.9 79.9

N

400 600

800 1000

400 600

800 1000

Dig, %

Wondra et al., 1995

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Particle size reduction can be negative Particle size reduction can be negative

to gut health

to gut health – – pig/poultry pig/poultry

Fine grinding is also associated with increased incidence of gastric Fine grinding is also associated with increased incidence of gastric ulcers (

ulcers (WondraWondra et al., 1995)et al., 1995)

Fine grinding of the diet results in more keratinisedFine grinding of the diet results in more keratinised stomach tissue and stomach tissue and there are indications that fine grinding gives shorter

there are indications that fine grinding gives shorter villi:cryptvilli:crypt volume volume in the small intestine

in the small intestine

Coarse grinding for poultry will satisfy the requirement for structural Coarse grinding for poultry will satisfy the requirement for structural material for optimal gut and gizzard function

material for optimal gut and gizzard function

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

pig pig

Pelleted diets of pigs result in an increased feed intake, weight Pelleted diets of pigs result in an increased feed intake, weigh t gain and G:F ratio compared to mash control (

gain and G:F ratio compared to mash control (Wondra Wondra et al., et al., 1995; Johnston et al., 1999; Park et al., 2003)

1995; Johnston et al., 1999; Park et al., 2003)

Pelleting increased Pelleting increased digestibilties digestibilties of DM, N and GE by 5 of DM, N and GE by 5 – – 8% 8%

compared to mash control compared to mash control

Pre-conditioning of mash prior to pelleting does not affect DM, OM, CP and crude fat digestibility compared to cold pelleting (Van der Poel et al., 1997)

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

pig pig

Protein, fat, fibre and organic matter was positively affected bProtein, fat, fibre and organic matter was positively affected by fine y fine grinding before pelleting compared to coarse grinding

grinding before pelleting compared to coarse grinding

Improved accessibility of nutrients for digestive enzymes (Improved accessibility of nutrients for digestive enzymes (DirkzwagerDirkzwager et et al.,1998)

al.,1998)

Expanded feed improves digestibility of DM and gross energy compared to the mash control (Johnston et al., 1999)

Thermo mechanical processing reduces particle sizeparticle size

Effect of grinding levelled out Effect of grinding levelled out

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

pig pig

Higher viscosity for the extruder processed diet may have prolonged

intestinal retention time, allowing more time for digestion and absorption of nutrients

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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Time, min

Viscosity, cP

Mash Low temp High temp

Expander Extruder

Viscosity measured in the diets from 5-167 minutes after addition of pancreatin

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Growth assay nursery pigs Growth assay nursery pigs

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314 94

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28 Viscosity, cP

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9 Gel. of starch, %

860 802

802 810

759 G:F, g/kg feed

517 537

534 543

563 ADFI, g

445 430

429 440

425 ADG, g

Extruder Expander

High temp Low temp

Mash Item

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Standardized ileal digestibility in pigs Standardized ileal digestibility in pigs

fed processed feed relative to mash fed processed feed relative to mash

control control

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99 100 101 102 103 104 105

Low temp

pell

High temp pell

Exp Extr

EAA Arg Ile Lys Thr

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

chicken chicken

Broiler chickens showed reduced ADG and ADFI with expander Broiler chickens showed reduced ADG and ADFI with expander conditioning and extruder processing compared to mash control conditioning and extruder processing compared to mash control (Lundblad(Lundblad, 2009), 2009)

Processing may affect the antinutritiveProcessing may affect the antinutritive effect of soluble fibres, which effect of soluble fibres, which increase viscosity of the gut content and thus reduce digestibil

increase viscosity of the gut content and thus reduce digestibility and ity and nutrient absorption (

nutrient absorption (ZimonjaZimonja et al., 2008)et al., 2008)

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

chicken chicken

Reduction in ADG, ADFI and G:F with increased viscosity in the Reduction in ADG, ADFI and G:F with increased viscosity in the gastrointestinal content with steam pelleting compared to cold p

gastrointestinal content with steam pelleting compared to cold pelleting elleting (Zimonja(Zimonja et al., 2008) et al., 2008)

Starch digestibility was higher for broiler chicken fed thermo mechanical Starch digestibility was higher for broiler chicken fed thermo mechanical processed feed (

processed feed (WeurdingWeurding et al., 2002; Zimonjaet al., 2002; Zimonja et al., 2008; Lundbladet al., 2008; Lundblad, , 2009)

2009)

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Effect of processing on ADG and G:F Effect of processing on ADG and G:F

relative to mash control relative to mash control

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106.0 103.8

G:F Chicken

87.5 115.6

ADG Chicken

113.3 105.7

G:F Piglets

104.7 100.9

ADG Piglets

Extruder High temp

Item Animal

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Particle size reduction

Particle size reduction - - ruminants ruminants

Small particle size give a rapid starch degradation Small particle size give a rapid starch degradation which gives pH drop in the rumen

which gives pH drop in the rumen

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R educed particle size will increase starch degradation and lows rumen pH

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5 5,4 5,8 6,2 6,6 7 7,4

pH

Norm al Coars e

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Rumen starch digestion differ among feedstuffs

150 250 350 450 550 650

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Rumen undegraded starch, g/kg DM

Rumen degraded starch, g/kg DM

Wheat

Sorghum Potato

Oats Barley

Toasted peas

Peas Maize

Corn silage

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Effect of expanded and pelleted barley and oats on rumen pH

Barley

5,6 5,7 5,8 5,9 6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Rumen pH

Pelleted Expanded

Oats

5,6 5,7 5,8 5,9 6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Rumen pH

Pelleted Expanded

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Thermo mechanical processing Thermo mechanical processing - -

ruminants ruminants

Expander treatment has shown to have a potential to reduce Expander treatment has shown to have a potential to reduce protein degradation in the rumen (Prestl

protein degradation in the rumen (Prestløøkken, 1999)kken, 1999)

Probably due to introduction of internal crossProbably due to introduction of internal cross--links in proteinslinks in proteins

Result: protein digestion is moved from the rumen to the small Result: protein digestion is moved from the rumen to the small intestine

intestine

Important not to over-Important not to over-protect protein! protect protein!

Overheating may reduce intestinal digestibility of protein

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Utilization of the Maillard reaction to improve protein value

Reaction between lysine and xylose used to reduce rumen

degradation of protein and amino acids

Rumen bypass of protein and

amino acids is increased, although analytical loss of Lysine (17 %) was observed (Harstad and

Prestløkken, 2000)

Adequate availability of remaining lysine

0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0

Rumen degradation, %

SBM SoyPass

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Conclusion Conclusion

The fate of nutritionally important components are affected by feed The fate of nutritionally important components are affected by feed processing

processing

Modification of starch and protein Modification of starch and protein

Losses of vitamins, enzymes and amino acidsLosses of vitamins, enzymes and amino acids

Elimination of anti nutrients e.g. protease inhibitorsElimination of anti nutrients e.g. protease inhibitors

Optimal processing vary between pig, poultry and ruminantsOptimal processing vary between pig, poultry and ruminants

Feed processing can be used as a tool to improve animal performance and economy in animal production

It is important for the feed industry to know the specific effecIt is important for the feed industry to know the specific effects of feed ts of feed processing on nutritional value