Islam in the Age of the Ecological Apocalypse
A content Analysis of the Islamic Eco-Theological Discourse
Marita L. Furehaug
Master’s Thesis submitted in Religion and Society Supervisor: Associate Professor Safet Bektovic
Faculty of Theology University of Oslo
Autumn 2020
© Marita L. Furehaug
2020
Islam in the age of the ecological apocalypse – A content analysis of the Islamic eco-theological discourse
Word count: 38 804
http://www.duo.uio.no/
Abstract
In this thesis, a content analysis of the Islamic eco-theological discourse is conducted, while critically engaging with three selected topics generated from this field, namely, (1) central concepts, ideas and principles and how these contribute to the human-ecological relationship, (2) Islamic eschatology in relation to environmental challenges (3) consumption and religious symbols in marketing. The thesis seeks to answer the research question: “When examining selected topics within the Islamic eco-theological discourse, how can we understand Islam’s message in light of the contemporary environmental challenges?”
The central Islamic concepts, ideas and principles presented and analysed in a discussion on their profound impact on the human-ecological relationship is tawhid (God’s oneness), ayat (signs), khalifah (steward), amana (trust/covenant), mizan (balance), adl (justice) and rahmah (mercy).
Further, Islamic eschatology in connection to eco-theology is explored by drawing on discourses on the Anthropocene and by examining how eschatology informs Muslim environmentalisms.
Finally, I explore how consumption is treated in the eco-theological discourse. While drawing on studies from the field of consumption that stress the social component when dealing with
consumer behaviour, the thesis aims to illustrate that the eco-theological discourse lacks this social component. In addition, case-studies dealing with examples of contemporary Muslim consumer practices will be presented to point to some contradictory expressions of ‘Islamic’.
Furthermore, by conceptualizing Islamic as hermeneutical engagement, the thesis seeks to emphasize the human component in the ways Islamic meaning is produced.
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I must express my great appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor, Safet.
Thank you so much for your patience, encouragement, enthusiasm and guidance. Thank you for believing in this project, from beginning until end, also at times when I myself didn’t. I am deeply grateful for the understanding and compassion you have shown me throughout this project. This has been of immense value.
I also wish to express a great appreciation to my parents, my sister and my friends for always supporting me, believing in my abilities to complete this project and always cheering me on. I feel truly blessed to have you all in my life.
Finally, my dear husband Tarek and our beautiful daughter Farida. Tarek, I cannot express in words the gratitude I feel towards you. Thank you for keeping me sane, for holding down the fort at home and for your unfailing support, understanding, love and encouragement. I could not have done this without you.
To Farida, thank you for always reminding me what is important and for making me laugh and smile every day. This thesis is dedicated to you.
Any errors, omissions or shortcoming in this thesis, are mine alone.
Marita Lindberg Furehaug Oslo, Fall 2020
Content
1 Introduction ... 1
1.1 Thematic presentation and research question ...2
1.2 Previous research: The Field of eco-Islam ...3
1.3 The structure of the thesis ...7
1.4 The understanding of being Islamic ...8
2 Theoretical frameworks ... 10
2.1. The book of the Universe ... 10
2.2 Nature as the “proximate other” in the process of “othering” ... 12
2.3 Examples of Islamic eco-theologies ... 14
2.4 Habitus in Islamic context ... 17
2.5 Conceptualizing Islamic Eschatology ... 20
2.6 The Holocene vs. the Anthropocene... 23
3 Methodology ... 26
3.1 Content analysis ... 26
3.2 Chosen units for analysis ... 27
3.2.1 Central Islamic principles and the human-ecological relationship ... 27
3.2.2 Islamic Eschatology ... 28
3.2.3 Consumption and religious symbols in marketing ... 28
4 Contextualizing the Quran’s environmental conditions ... 30
4.1 Quranic portrayals of the natural world ... 30
4.2 The Quranic Fauna and Flora ... 31
4.3 The ‘apocalyptic’ Quran ... 33
4.4 Anthropocentric vs. biocentric readings of the Quran ... 35
5 Central Islamic concepts and the human-ecological relationship ... 38
5.1 Tawhid ... 38
5.1.1 Tawhid conceptualized by al-Faruqi ... 38
5.1.2 Tawhid conceptualized in environmental thought ... 41
5.2 Ayat in Creation ... 44
5.3 Khalifah – Humanity as Stewards of Earth ... 47
5.4 Amana – Humanity’s covenant with God ... 50
5.5 Mizan – Humanity as disrupters of balance ... 51
4.6 Adl – Formulations of Justice in Islamic Eco-theology ... 54
5.7 Rahmah – A Reflexive Relationship based on Mercy ... 56
5.8 Reflecting on the implications for the human-ecological relationship ... 57
6 Islamic Environmental Eschatology ... 59
6.1 The Islamic Eschatological World View ... 59
6.2 Paradise and hell as apocalyptic motifs ... 61
6.2 Eschatology in connection to environmental discourses ... 64
6.3 Secular Discourses of the Anthropocene ... 66
6.4 Islamic eschatology in the eco-theological discourse ... 68
6.4 The Anthropocene in Islamic eco-theology ... 71
6.5 Expressions of Eschatology in Muslim Environmentalism... 75
7 Consumption and Islam in Marketing ... 80
7.1 The rational autonomous consumer and social practice theory ... 80
7.2 Islamic ideals regarding consumption – Between askesis and moderation ... 82
7.3 Consumption in the Islamic eco-theological discourse ... 85
7.4 The Muslim market: religious branding and symbolism ... 89
7.5 Inclusion and representation: ‘Mipster’, Generation M and Pop-Islam ... 92
7.6 Concluding remarks on contradictive Islamic expressions ... 97
8 Conclusion ... 99
Bibliography ... 102
Internet sources: ... 107
1 Introduction
The global environmental challenges, caused by contemporary human ways of living, are historically unprecedented. Climate change and global warming, pollution and extreme weather conditions, the loss of wild habitat and biodiversity, along with large amounts of plastic and toxic waste endangering marine and earthly life across the globe, are but a few examples of the pressing environmental challenges constituting huge threats for all living creatures on earth.
Scientific discussions on the human impact on earth has resulted in arguments to recognize a new geological epoch, namely, the Anthropocene (Jenkins 2003, 236). This geological epoch is thus referring to the commencement of significant human impact on Earth’s geology and its ecosystems, including, but not limited to anthropogenic climate change. The vast knowledge accumulation, dealing with the multitude of ways human activities are negatively affecting the natural world has caused many theorists and religious scholars to formulate new philosophies and religious interpretations dealing with man’s relationship and responsibility towards the natural world. With this regard, scholars from religious studies, history of religions, philosophy and theology have for the past decades created the field of Religion and Ecology (Grim and Tucker 2014). These scholars argue that the religious traditions of the world have a key role in facing modern times environmental challenges, and that they can be active participants in finding solutions along with scientists, economists and policymakers. The potential and possibility of religions to infuse a spiritual and ethical dimension into the environmental movement are now emerging across the world, as religious communities are participating in transformative social change based on principles of environmental justice (Grim and Tucker 2014, 17). The
environmental issue is equally pressing for all societies and is therefore a collaboration among all faith communities, making it an inter-religious and secular question as well. Considering the complexity and multitude of challenges, with widespread and serious consequences, the
environmental crises needs to be dealt with at multiple levels: global, national, local, institutional and personal. In addition, it will be important to tackle the issues from the perspective of
multiple disciplines. In other words, these matters concern us all.
Many Muslim scholars, within the field, argue that profound environmental teachings are spiritually, ethically, theologically and theoretically embedded in the Qur’an, Hadith-literature and the Islamic tradition. These scholars draw on a variety of methods and points of departure,
and a number of Muslims across the world are taking environmental action, engaging in what is called Muslim environmentalism, transforming these teachings into practice and action.
However, it should be noted that there are a considerable number of Muslims that are not taking part in this discourse or in explicit environmentalism. In fact, it has been argued that the Islamic eco-theological discourse is still in its information state, in which the primary focus is spreading knowledge and increasing awareness on the environmental perspectives in Islam and placing this in the context of today’s environmental challenges (Mohamed 2013, 325). Further, while there might be textual passages in scripture celebrating nature, this does not automatically lead to protection of nature, creating a gap between theory and practice. In addition, the environmental crises is a modern phenomenon, and thus scholars have recognized a disjunction of religious traditions and modern environmental issues, noting the historical and cultural divide between texts written in a different time, for different ends. The myriad of contributions of what
constitutes the eco-Islamic discourse, and the ways in which these contributions have attempted to address these issues, attest to the rich number of interpretative methods, approaches, and material to draw from.
1.1 Thematic presentation and research question
In this thesis, I wish to examine the field of Islamic eco-theology, and through a content analysis, critically engage with the discourse on some chosen themes. Broadly formulated my research question is;
How can we understand Islam’s message in light of the environmental challenges?
More precisely, it is an attempt to formulate a thematic overview on central arguments and interpretative focus in the field of Islamic eco-theology, and hence articulate or convey how these (selected) elements form a distinctive Islamic take on ecological concerns and the human responsibility in dealing with the contemporary environmental challenges. One might argue, that by examining the Islamic eco-theological discourse, which precisely sets out to tackle the issues of the environmental challenges, the answer is rather clear-cut. Of course, it can be assumed, that all of these different actors within the literature I examine, will argue that Islam is a positive
contribution to the environmental discourse. This is a statement that I personally agree with, however, I am interested in critically exploring and engaging with the ways different
interpretations are utilized in forming the environmental message of Islam by identifying trends, principles, key concepts and methodologies within this discourse. In addition, my intention is also to present some aspects that in my opinion is lacking from the discourse. However, it should be stressed that I do not assert to be exhaustive in my analysis of the eco-theological discourse. Rather, this thesis is made up of critical engagement and, what I believe to be, relevant remarks on a few chosen areas of research. Perhaps then a more precise formulation of the
research question would be;
When examining selected topics within the Islamic eco-theological discourse, how can we understand Islam’s message in light of the environmental challenges?
While it is the second formulation of the research question I will primarily address, I hope to demonstrate during the course of the thesis that in the space between the two formulations could potentially leave room for contradicting Islamic messages.
1.2 Previous research: The Field of eco-Islam
While man’s relationship to the rest of creation has been addressed throughout the Islamic tradition, the academic field known as Islam and Ecology, Islam and the environment, eco-Islam or Islamic eco-theology is a fairly modern construct, as it has arisen as a response to
contemporary environmental concerns. Sayyed Hossein Nasr has been a key actor and is viewed to be the first Muslim scholar to address a pressing environmental concern since the late 60’s and the potential role religions may play in facing these challenges. Other voices apparent in the 70’s and 80’s are Ziauddin Sardar and S.Parves Manzoor, all of which approached the environmental crisis from an ‘Islamic science’ perspective (Schwencke 2012, 12). There has been a slow but steady increase in publications since then, and the theoretical field of Islamic eco-theology has also seen manifestations of real-life Muslim environmentalism, through publications and program documents focusing on Muslim environmental activists who all claim their activism is grounded in religious teachings and conviction (Gade 2019; Härmälä 2014; Schwenche 2012).
Today, there exists a growing number of publications dealing with Islam’s message on the environment, and the notion of anchoring an environmental ethics in something spiritually deeper in order to deal with the environmental challenges, is well documented in the writings of many Muslim scholars (Abdul-Matin 2010, Gade 2019, Fagan 2016, Khalid 2019, Ouis 1998, Ozdemir 2003, Nasr 1997, Ramadan 2007). However, their scope, focus and methodology differ.
When examining this discourse, it’s views and ideas, it becomes apparent that a variety of approaches have emerged, some are theological-juridical and ethical, some social and political, others mystical, each interpreting the Islamic sources in a distinct way (Schwenche 2012, 5).
Most of this material do attempt to form a specific Islamic message in connection to the current environmental crises, however, to my knowledge, there has not been conducted a content analysis that critically engage with the ways in which this message is communicated. However, Anna Gade’s book Muslim Environmentalism (2019) presents a fresh exception in this regard, as she critically evaluates some common elements from the field of Islam and the environment, which she argues, carry the legacy of post-colonialism and follows a global recipe for how environmental discourse are essentially being Islamized. Gade claims that Islam and the
environment usually casts the environment in a decontextualized and generalized form and, just like mainstream environmentalism overall, loosely as a European nature concept (Gade 2019, 37). As she presents perspectives from her fieldwork in Indonesia, she argues that the Muslim environmentalisms illustrate that when environmentalism is integral to religious piety, it draws on religious discourse differently than when religion is enrolled secondarily for environmental projects (Gade 2019, 199).
Another study conducted in 2012 by A.M. Schwenche with the title “Globalized Eco-Islam - A Survey of Global Islamic Environmentalism” explores the landscape of Islamic
environmentalism with a bird’s eye view. In this study, Islamic environmentalism refers to environmental action or theoretical formulations referring to both Islam and environmental issues, thus, the environmentalism substantiate its views and actions through engaging with Islamic discourse. This is a rather broad survey that aims to uncover, identify and describe the ideas, activities and practices that have developed within the Muslim world since the 1970’s. In keeping with the survey’s aim and scope it presents the terrain of Islamic environmentalism rather broadly and scratches the surface on a number of issues, such as Islamic eco-philosophies,
Islamic environmental law, green jihadi activism, halal eco-certified foods, Islamic eco-villages, Islamic local currencies, ‘green’ sheikhs and scholars, ‘ethical’ sustainable ‘shariah’, and
finance, trade and business practices. In addition, the survey addresses a number of declarations issued, such as the Islamic Declaration on Sustainable Development (2002) of the Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC) and a Muslim Declaration on Nature (1986) of the Muslim World League1 (Schwencke 2012, 5). However, the survey does not present any in-depth research nor does it critically engage with the presented examples of Islamic environmentalism.
Rather than dividing the field into different approaches, identifying subcategories, or subfields within the discourse of Islamic eco-theology could also be a fruitful way to gain an overview of the eco-theological discourse. This is because many approaches are interconnected and utilized in different inquires. The same could be argued about these subcategories, however, this is the approach utilized in the content analysis and how I finally came to choose the topics I wanted to examine in my analysis. One subcategory could deal with writings dealing with the role of Shariah and Islamic jurisprudence.
A number of publications have argued for the role of shariah and traditional fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) as part of the solution to the environmental challenges. This discourse, however, reveals an inherent fuzziness in its use of the term shariah, and thus, is utilized in a number of ways in promoting earth- friendly practices and lobby for government regulations that protect the environment (Johnston 2012, 218). Some of these efforts have resulted in the formulations of fatwas (nonbinding legal opinion), dealing with ecological concerns and thus, concrete ways Islamic legislation has manifested in environmental protection. Examples of such fatwas is when the MUI – the Indonesian Council of
Religious Scholars announced a widely publicized fatwa on wildlife trafficking in 2014 (Gade 2019, 71) and another fatwa from MUI entitled “Waste Management to Counteract Environmental Degradation”
(Gade 2019, 150). Others highlight Islamic legal perspectives on the environment with regards to for
1 The study identifies an array of approaches within this field, listing 7 different approaches, namely, 1) Theological and Islamic law based (classical normative), 2) Mystical philosophical nature or eco-philosophy (ethical), 3) Reform of science and technology (Islamic science), 4) Social political reform (Eco-Islamist), 5) Land- water resource management, nature conservation (conservationist), 6) Green lifestyles and the economy (Green Deen), 7) Sustainable Islamic Finance and economics, commerce and trade (Schwencke 2012, 70).
example water conservation, protected land zones/reserves known as hima or harim and animal rights to name some (Izzi Dien 2000, 42, 45, 97).
Another subcategory deals with the issue of animal rights, animal welfare, the status of animals or the relationship between humanity and animals. One unique contribution here, is Sarra Tlili’s book Animals in the Quran (2014) that examines the status and nature of animals as they are portrayed in the Quran and in selected classical exegetical works, in which animals are viewed as spiritual, moral, intelligent and accountable beings. In this way, the study presents a challenge to the prevalent view of man's superiority over animals and suggests new ways of interpreting the Qur'an. Other contributions focus more on ethical considerations regarding the treatment of animals in general drawn from the Quran, hadith-literature and the Islamic tradition (Islam 2015;
Rahman 2017) and more specifically ethical regulations pertaining to ritual slaughter and animal welfare as formulated in the juridical arena in connection to modern production methods (Farouk et al 2016). Tariq Ramadan scrutinize contemporary religious jurists and argues that there is a general dissonance between juridical formulations regarding technical prescriptions regarding ritual slaughter and the classification of halal meat and Islamic ethical considerations on animal welfare. This point is highly connected to a critique of the nature of the industry focusing on capital and profit and overconsumption and overproduction of halal meat, while disregarding the higher ethical objectives (Ramadan 2009, 236). Islam and Islam (2015) have formulated an Islamic Ecological Paradigm (IEP) focusing on the human-animal relationship and animal
welfare. This subfield is thus highly connected to the juridical-ethical aspect pertaining to shariah, reflections on the relationship between humans and the rest of creation, and social, political and economic critiques.
A third subcategory could include the perspectives for ecofeminism. While these cannot be said to be widespread within the Islamic eco-theological discourse, a few actors have written texts exploring ecofeminism from an Islamic perspective. Nawal H. Ammar and Allison Gray as an example, examines whether Islamic environmental teachings are compatible with ecofeminism and point to commonalities. To these authors, the Islamic environmental ethics perspective sees a direct relationship between the mistreatment of woman and the degradation of the environment.
This relationship, they argue, is apparent in ideas respecting all God’s creatures (Ammar and
Gray 2017, 307). While this subfield is underdeveloped in the Islamic eco-theologies, gender perspectives in Islamic eco-theologies could become more prevalent in future research.
Highlighted here are some suggested subcategories within the field of Islamic eco-theology.
While it cannot claim to be comprehensive, it is an attempt to illustrate some perspectives from previous research within this field that is not included in my analysis. It should also be stressed that my content analysis is based on sources accessible in English. A wide range of languages is spoken in the Muslim world and it must be assumed that a significant part of environmental discourses will be carried out in languages, such as Arabic, Urdu, Bahasa Indonesia, Malay or Turkish among others.
1.3 The structure of the thesis
This thesis is divided into 8 chapters. Following this section, I will clarify my understanding of employing the term “Islamic”. In chapter 2 the theoretical framework informing this thesis will be presented. Further, chapter 3 will elaborate on the chosen method, content analysis, and introduce the chosen topics from the field of Islamic eco-theology, included in the analysis.
Chapter 4 will situate some environmental perspectives pertaining to the Quran and reflect upon the holy text as “apocalyptic”. Further, I will deliberate briefly on the Quran displaying
anthropocentric, theocentric or biocentric attitudes. Thereafter, the chosen topics selected for the analysis will be dealt with in the next three chapters. Though these topics are connected by an Islamic ecological perspective, each chapter presents separate perspectives, analysis and discussions pertaining to the selected topic. Thus, in chapter 5, central concepts, ideas and principles from the eco-theological discourse are presented and discussed. Additionally, I will reflect on the implications these have regarding the human-ecological relationship. Chapter 6 deals with Islamic eschatology in relation to Islamic eco-theology. Here I will analyse how the Anthropocene is addressed in the discourse and discuss its possible implications for Islamic theology. Further, I examine how Islamic eschatology is expressed through Muslim
environmentalism. The issue of consumption is the topic for chapter 7. The way consumption is presented through the eco-theological discourse, drawing on ideas from the Islamic tradition, will be discussed alongside perspectives from consumption studies and selected case studies dealing
with Muslim consumer habits. A conclusion elaborating on the central findings of the analysis and how they inform my initial research questions will appear in the final chapter.
1.4 The understanding of being Islamic
At the core of this analysis is the articulation and implementation of the Islamic message within the fields of ecology and the environment. However, I also wish to draw attention to some ways that the term ‘Islamic’ operate in different realms that are seen as contradictive. This is why Ahmed’s conceptualization of Islam as a hermeneutical engagement, is particularly useful as is sheds light on the dynamic and sometimes contradictory expressions of Islamic thought. In Ahmed’s book What is Islam? The importance of being Islamic, hermeneutical engagement refers to engagement by an actor or agent with a source or object of (potential) meaning in a way that ultimately produces meaning for the actor by way of the source (Ahmed 2016, 345). Being Islamic in that sense means producing a meaning that rests on a hermeneutical interpretation of the sources of Islam and which is relevant and meaningful in the given context. Ahmed’s main analytical project is to conceptualize Islam as a historical and human phenomenon dealing with the interpretation of God’s revelation. This contributes to shed light on a number of complex, diverse and contradicting aspects embedded within the formation of theological, ethical and practical expressions of Islamic meaning-making, as hermeneutical draws the attention to truth and meaning, and to the processes of interactions, interpretation and understanding, to the identity of the sources of meaning and to the methods employed in the formation of truth and meaning. Engagement draws our attention to the role of the human actor in the process of truth- and meaning-making and to the articulation and implementation of the Islamic (meanings) in the real life of Muslims (Ahmed 2016, 345).
The obvious source-object of meaning in which the hermeneutical engagement is made, consists of the Quran and the Hadith, the context in which the sacred text is situated, and what Ahmed calls the Pre-Text of Revelation (that is, ideas and opinions that have existed before and outside of revelation). Ahmed elaborates further on using the term ‘Islamic’ and stress the importance of having an accurate and meaningful conceptualization of Islam because it matters how and when we use the word ‘Islamic’, to identify, designate, characterize and constitute given phenomena,
meaningful act as a result of hermeneutic engagement, however, it leaves room for the contradiction between ideas, values and practices that claim normative affiliation with Islam.
Ahmed points out that in any given phenomenon, the most glaring expression of ‘diversity’ or
‘difference’ is outright contradiction (Ahmed 2016, 109).
In my thesis, I think it is important to stress these diverse and contradicting aspects when it comes to interpreting the body of Islam and the Muslim expressions of Islamic thought, when regarding both theory and practice. This is present when considering the different positions presented throughout the thesis; however, it is most apparent in chapter 7, where I examine the Islamic eco-theological discourse dealing with consumption on one hand and the use of Islamic ideas and concepts informing what may be referred to as the ‘marketization of Islam’ or the
‘Islamic culture industry’ on the other. Thus, from a research perspective it provides the opportunity to look at multiple phenomenon that are glaringly contradictive, without taking a normative position and declaring them Islamic or ‘un-Islamic’.
It might also be important to stress that Islam/Islamic is not always defined in the works of the various contributions to the eco-theological field, in which this thesis draws on, it is clear that most of the authors/actors’ view Islam in the manner of expressing a Divine Command, ultimately leading to existential salvation, and without necessarily being aware of the different and perhaps contradictory interpretive possibilities. This distinction is important both in how I attempt to explain some aspects of contradictions I find during the course of this thesis, and for how the eco-theological discourse weave ecological concerns into the web of accountability, for the ultimate goal - a place in paradise. To see these splaying expressions of Islamic as
hermeneutical engagement with Islamic sources and in relation to a specific challenge (environment), allow me to include them in my analysis and argue that these expressions of Islamic exist in the same realm and affect how Muslims engage with and within creation.
2 Theoretical frameworks
In this chapter, I will elaborate on the theoretical tools informing this thesis. These allow me to connect aspects of the various categories identified from the Islamic eco-theological discourse to the overall discussion of their link to both the Islamic tradition and to their relevance in
formulating a meaningful ecological message founded in Islam. In 2.1 I will employ Tariq Ramadan’s theory of ‘The book of the Universe’ to elaborate on reflections pertaining to an expansion of sources informing an eco-theology. Lamptey’s theory on the “proximate other” will in 2.2 explain how the eco-theological discourse are challenging approaches to ‘nature’ as a fixed, bounded category. Section 2.3 is included to demonstrate that there are various levels and actual outcomes of eco-theologies. In 2.4 I explore Bourdieu’s theory of habitus, and how it is expressed in the Islamic context. It is thus utilized to reflect upon the possibility of training a religious environmental conscience through the elaborations of classical Muslim thinkers such as Miskaway and al-Ghazali. Further, in 2.5 a conceptualization of Islamic Eschatology is provided.
Finally, point 2.6 deals with the relationship of ‘the Holocene vs. the Anthropocene’ that will inform the discussion in chapter 6 on eschatology.
2.1. The book of the Universe
The famous Persian philosopher and theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazali called the Universe an
“outspread book” (al-kitāb al-manshūr), as a parallel to holy books/ collections of God’s revelations. In a similar way, Tariq Ramadan considers the Book of the Universe, a theological and physical mirror of the Qur’an, the “written book” (al-kitāb al-mastūr) (Ramadan 2009, 88).
Ramadan elaborates on a framework of applied Islamic ethics and seeks to incorporate ‘the interpretations of the universe’ including the human historical and social context, as important sources when dealing with juridical matters. As this thesis seek to explore the eco-theological discourse, I believe it is relevant to draw on similar reflections pertaining to sources that can potentially inform this discourse. Further, the theorization of ‘the book of the universe’ as a source for Islamic eco-theologies points to the importance of drawing on sources ‘outside’ of the religious discourse. In fact, some authors within this field stress the importance of drawing on scientific knowledge regarding the environment or draw historical lines related to ideas to establish root causes to the environmental crises, while other eco-theologies simply seek to
establish the relevance of religious texts in dealing with environmental matters. The range and complexity of environmental issues as social and human phenomenon attest to a need to draw on a variety of sources from different disciplines. In other words, when considering the human agency related to contemporary environmental challenges, it becomes apparent that the human historical and social context, along with its sciences should form an important part of Islamic eco-theologies as well.
Tariq Ramadan argues that one of the major problems with modern Muslim thought today is the narrow use of sources in the formulation of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) informing Muslim ethics and practice (Ramadan 2009, 82). While earlier scholars were more intimately familiar with their environments, in which and for which they formulated laws and ethics, resulting in a more pragmatic, creative and confident approach. Local practices today are connected to the global order, all the spheres of human action are interdependent and interconnected, and it is impossible for scholars today to grasp this complexity with the same confidence as early scholars. In order to tackle the challenges of contemporary life, there is a need to gain a deeper understanding, and thus an expansion of sources to draw knowledge from in religious matters. These reflections could easily be applied to the environmental perspective in religious discourse as well, and when it comes to establishing what may be thought of as useful sources for the discourse.
Ramadan deals with revelation in two categories, two revelations or two “books”. One important aspect of how the sources all tie together is the Arabic word ayat (aya in singular) or ‘signs.
Ramadan points to the fact that the Qur’an constantly refer to the created universe, to the elements in nature, and to the ‘signs’ that pervade it. There are clear notions to reflect, contemplate and experience these ‘signs of God’s creation2 (Ramadan 2009, 87). However, while many eco-theologies stress ayat as a need to spend time in nature, contemplating nature as a spiritual foundation to connect to God, Ramadan differs as ayat (as signs) here forms a key
2 The notion of ‘signs’ in this regard is essential as it establishes a correspondence between the revealed text and the
‘revealed’ universe, a correspondence of orders. This word is traditionally translated to verses (in the Qur’an) in European languages, in the bases of “verses” in Biblical versification but holds quite a different meaning in the Arabic language. The referral of ayat as both signs in the natural world/universe and the verses in the Qur’an as signs of and from God, is the reason why this concept is utilized in almost all the Islamic eco-theologies informing this thesis, and this will therefore be addressed more in detail later in the analysis.
concept in incorporating the Universe as a source of revelation along with scriptural sources that traditionally form the ultimate source of Islamic legislation3.
In my understanding, this is not just an inclusion of natural science in the traditional academic sense, however, it is an invitation to draw on creation and the knowledge we have related to God’s creation in a spiritual and rational manner, in order to have a more holistic and ethical framework. It entails incorporating sources in order to develop a more comprehensive and integral approach to Muslim environmental thought and practice. Further, including the Universe or creation as a source in this way opens up considerations for creation as a whole, the well- being of animals, plants and their habitats, and draws the attention to the biological diversity in general, not just the interest of humankind. In addition, it seeks to draw attention to the social sciences, viewing the human being as embedded in a social and historical context.
2.2 Nature as the “proximate other” in the process of “othering”
In this section, I would like to draw on theory formulated and utilized by Jerusha Tanner
Lamptey. Her theory involves thinking differently about difference with regards to the “religious other” in the Quran4. While her theory involves other religious groups or communities (i.e.
human beings), I would like to extend this theory to reflect upon nature as the “proximate other”.
It should be stated that it is not my intention to define what nature is and to place it within fixed boundaries, rather, it is to blur these lines in attempting to view the ‘other’ (i.e. nature) as a proximate other, and draw this in connection with elaborations on nature and humans as
interconnected in the unity of creation. An excessive focus on the boundaries themselves and on the process of identifying that which demarcates a boundary with regards to religious difference,
3 Ramadan writes: “(…) the surrounding Creation is a Universe of signs that must be grasped, understood, and interpreted. Signs tell of meaning…and the signs in the Universe therefore reveal that the latter is fraught with meaning” (Ramadan 2009, 88).
4 This theory is employed to examine Quranic discourse depicting religious diversity, something Lamptey stresses theologically is linked to the understanding of God and God’s action in the world, thus, also intertwined with the understanding of humankind and the purpose of human creation (Lamptey 2014, 34). While Lamptey’s theory involves more elements, I was intrigued by her concept of ‘othering’ and applying this to nature to illustrate the implications eco-theology have on the human-ecological relationship. Lamptey writes: “With this rethinking of difference, the new and primary option is to focus on the dynamic intersections themselves without collapsing the two genres, without depicting them in a static or exclusive relationship, and without returning to a reliance upon
Lamptey argues leads to a reduction or simplification of the complexity of the Quranic discourse, as well as the nature of religious identity and interaction (Lamptey 2014, 36). This would
naturally suppose a certain genre of the “religious other”, one that is clearly identified, bounded and discrete. It is an ‘other’ who is unmistakably distinct from the religious ‘self’. Reflecting upon these formulations in relation to nature and the conceptualizations of Islamic ideas such as tawhid (God’s oneness and the interconnectedness of creation), amana (relating to the pact between God and humanity) and ayat (signs), as they are formulated within the eco-theological discourse, challenge established ideas of how the human is situated in creation and dichotomies like human-nature.
Drawing upon Smith who discusses the binary opposition of WE/THEY, or IN/OUT and the boundary-focused view of the ‘other’, Lamptey demonstrates how this stark dualism both is characterized by a preoccupation with clearly defined, impenetrable boundaries and limits, whereby the primary mode of interaction is a double process of containment, that is, keeping in and keeping out. However, Smith contends that ‘othering’, which is the process whereby we make sense of the ‘other’ is much more complex than the basic opposition of us and them. In this sense, ‘othering’ involves multiple possible relations with the ‘other’. It is interesting to note that Lamptey emphasize that the deepest intellectual issues arise when the other is “too much like us”, when the other is the proximate other in distinction from the distant other. While the distant other is clearly distinguished, insignificant and voiceless; since they are easily defined and contained, they require minimal exegetical effort, the proximate other is more complex and amorphous. Lamptey thus argues that the proximate other presents a direct and perpetual challenge to the worldview and identity of the ‘self’, thereby forcing continuous modification, reconsideration, and re-drawing boundaries. Seen in this way, proximate difference does not demarcate discrete and static boundaries, rather, it points to dynamic and multiple relations between the self and the ‘other’ (Lamptey 2014, 37). In effect, this is, in my understanding, what (some) eco-theologies attempt to do by elaborating on the intricate relationship between the human being and the natural world. It challenges nature as a ‘distant other’ that are insignificant and voiceless, easily defined and detained, and instead point to the complexities of the human- nature relationship, highlighting the interconnectedness of human beings, animals and nature as
inter-relational creation and giving it a voice through studying its signs and reflecting upon their position and function in creation.
In other words, this theory is utilized by extending the binary opposition of the ‘religious self’
and the ‘religious other’ to illuminate the relationship between humans and the natural world and the way eco-theology might challenge this. The common demarcation of man and nature and the deconstruction of the dichotomies like man/nature and nature/culture has been addressed in many writings. My thesis will not delve into these dichotomies. What I am interested in, within the confines of this thesis, is to utilize this theory to argue that the way these Islamic conceptions is formulated within the eco-theological discourse, actually challenges the dominant perception of the natural world. Further, it shed light on how we might view nature as the ‘proximate other’
through the elaborations of the concept of tawhid. The conceptualization of tawhid, as formulated in the Islamic eco-theological discourse emphasizing the interconnectedness of creation explains why the ‘other’ or nature is too much like us, while in reality it is treated as a distant other. Thus, to know creation through ‘signs’ and tawhid can be viewed as a process of
‘othering’.
2.3 Examples of Islamic eco-theologies
This section is meant to serve as a tool to express different levels of eco-theologies, based on their content or overall aim. While I emphasized variety in methodology, thematic subfields and the overall diversity within the field in the section pertaining to previous research, I wish here to formulate theoretical considerations expressing different levels by elaborating on terms such as an Islamic ‘greening’ of religion and transformative Islamic ecology. What does it entail to make a religion ‘green’ versus formulating a religious framework in relation to ecology and the
environment that are seen as transformative? Is eco-theology about adapting religion into a specific environmental-friendly framework, or can the environmental perspective bring new light to religious discourse and challenge orthodoxy, or both?
Härmälä is among the few that have formulated a theoretical framework for Muslim
environmentalism. This framework can be fruitful when examining the content of different eco-
between what she calls ‘weak Islamic environmentalism’ and ‘transformative Islamic ecology’.
Her main critique is that many Islamic eco-theologies are generally lacking up-to-date contextual interpretations, especially sources of modern scientific ecology. Theological approaches within
‘weak Islamic environmentalism’ includes traditional and literalist theology of the environment without including knowledge of modern scientific ecology, while examples of activism provided is ‘green’ consumerism and a general focus on individual consumption patterns, such as
switching for biofuel for the cars, stopping bottled water purchases, using renewable energy in the mosques, or marketing ecologically produced fair-trade Muslim fashion. Other examples of activism are picking up trash, not wasting water and avoiding pollution (Härmälä 2014, 26).
‘Transformative Islamic Ecology’, however, address the need to change the global
socioeconomic systems, which are the main cause for environmental degradation. Theological approaches under this heading involve eclectic, contextual, and contemporary theological approaches where modern scientific ecology is included. In the examples of activism, Härmälä, lists staging change, creating ethical systems, eco-villages and permaculture under
‘transformative Islamic ecology’ (Härmälä 2014, 26).
Gade argues that when resources of environmental inspiration are sought from world religions, a popular way to recognize and to promote Islamic environmental management is to ‘green’
actions that are already normatively Muslim (Gade 2019, 45). She provides two examples of global initiatives promoted by various organizations, namely, ‘Green Hajj’ and ‘Green Ramadan’. These initiatives focus on changing patterns of consumer behaviour through the conduit of required religious action. The first example, ‘Green Ramadan’, a typical pledge that is promoted by the Islamic Society of North America in 2015 (and later by other groups and organisations), emphasizes recycling in communal iftar (the breaking of the fast at sunset), conserving food and to avoid being wasteful by giving excess food to people in need; using biodegradable products for iftars and not Styrofoam cups and plates; replacing light bulbs with energy serving lightbulbs to conserve electricity and giving khutbah (Friday sermon) on the Islamic imperative to conserve and protect the environment (Gade 2019, 45).
The second example, the ‘Green Hajj’ program, comes in the form of a guide booklet, which is available on the ARC website (Alliance of Religions and Conservation). While this booklet asks the reader to consider their carbon footprint and provides a practical guide and considerations for
a ‘greener’ hajj and a ‘greener’ lifestyle upon return, Gade points out that the stipulations of
‘green hajj’ does not address critical issues that can be connected to norms within Islamic ritual law nor does its strategies attempt to change the character of the Hajj as an act of worship, undertaken for the sake of religious obligation. Despite the widespread questioning of the
requirement of sacrifice at the end of the Hajj for all Muslim communities, there is no mention of any alternative to animal slaughter, whether for pilgrims or for Muslims worldwide who also celebrate the ‘holiday of sacrifice’, Eid al-Adha (Gade 2019, 46). The requirement of animal ritual slaughter, in fact poses many challenging questions pertaining to concerns to the environment and to animal welfare. One aspect of this is that the high number of pilgrims to Saudi-Arabia alone, requires millions of cattle, many of which are transported overseas for days and sometimes weeks in terrible living conditions. Gade argues that just as in the case of Green Ramadan, the primary objective of Green Hajj is to rectify environmentally unfriendly patterns of product consumption by encouraging the pilgrims to reduce waste, consider more
environmentally friendly products and services and reflect on their lifestyle by invoking Islamic notions commonly found in treatments of Islam in relation to the environment5. She emphasizes that this approach reenforce ‘responsible’ environmental action through structures of neoliberal capital such as by buying ‘green’ products within a system of commodity circulation and consumption, making it the consumers individual responsibility to perpetuate environmental action through ‘green living’. ‘Greening’ religion is thus seen as global initiatives (Muslim and non-Muslim) to ‘Islamize’ environmental efforts of interest to global sustainable initiatives (Gade 2019, 47-48).
On the other hand, Gade argues that within Muslim environmentalisms, as expressed through her field work in Indonesia, environmentalism is cast as a means to achieve religious ends. And that for committed Muslims, environmental practice is a religious practice. This is not to say that environmentalism would be radicalized to the point of religious zeal, but as Gade points out, that
“religious lifeworlds dictate environmental engagement so naturally that they blend into the ethical and pious practices of the everyday” (Gade 2019, 35). One central figure in Gade’s research, the Indonesian religious scholar K.H. Thonthawi, reversed the question from “what can
5 These common notion within the eco-Islamic discourse, such as the relation of Creator and created (tawhid);
religion do for an environmentalist cause?” to “what does environmental care do for religious reality?” (Gade 2019, 232). This indicates that eco-theologies can and should seek to challenge Islamic theology and practice, as environmental challenges force humanity to seriously address underlying epistemologies, lifestyles and systems of power. Perspectives of environmental care and ethics could then provide profound contributions to religious reality.
While the boundaries might not always be so clear-cut, or you may find eco-theologies that contain multiple levels or aspects of what is presented here. This section is meant to function as a reflection of the ways eco-theologies can express different aims, sentiments and levels of
environmental action and the role Islam (or other actors) may play in connection to this.
2.4 Habitus in Islamic context
The concept of habitus is relevant precisely for the variety of ways it has been used to explain different processes pertaining to the human agent. The term habitus in Latin refers to various dimensions of self-representation: demeanour, bearing, expression, and posture, as well as manner of dress (Glancy 2010, 146). Here I will present some different perspectives on habitus in order to present some reflections pertaining to the conscious and unconscious relation between inner inclinations and outer displays of character and actions.
In Sabah Mahmoud’s study of a pious women’s mosque movement in Cairo, the term habitus is referring to a practice where the body, mind and emotions simultaneously perform an achieved competence. In this sense it refers to a specific pedagogical process where moral virtues are achieved through coordination of outer actions and inner dispositions. Thus, it is a conscious effort of reorienting one’s desires, by bringing their inner motifs, actual practice, inclinations and emotional state in agreement through a continued practice of virtuous deeds (Mahmoud 2001, 215). In Mahmoud’s study, habitus is utilized to emphasize the case of the hijab in an interesting way. The veil serves as an example of how an outer practice can be used to achieve a desired inner virtue over time. According to these women, it might feel awkward or embarrassing in the beginning to wear the veil, while eventually you begin to feel shy or exposed without it and even a sense of pride when wearing it. Seen in this way, the veil not only becomes a way of training oneself in achieving desired virtues like modesty and piety, but it is at the same time embedded
within the very practice of those virtues (Mahmoud 2001, 214). Mahmoud point to similar concepts found among traditional Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali, al-Miskawayh and Ibn Khaldun that could be explained by the concept of habitus. She particularly refers to Ira Lapidus’s study of Ibn Khaldun where he argues that the Arabic word malaka, which is often translated to habit, is better understood in light of the Latin term habitus, which he describes as an inner quality developed through outer practice until the quality of that practice regulates one’s behaviour without conscious efforts. In similar ways, Miskawayh establishes in the preamble of his book Refinement of Character6 (in Arabic: Tahdhib al-Akhlaq) that the object of the book is
“to acquire for ourselves such a character that all our actions issuing therefrom may be good, and the same time, may be performed by us easily, without any constraint or difficulty” (Miskawayh 2002, 1). Further, in a journal of Marketing Management, Rauf, Prasad and Ahmed explore how religion (theoretically) can discipline the consumer subject. Drawing on al-Ghazali, they
emphasize how he stresses a relinquishing of worldly desires to enable a better life in the Hereafter, by focusing on concepts of simplicity and minimalism. Al-Ghazali elaborates a
framework to discipline the soul and resist two detrimental vices, namely, desire for food and sex (Rauf, Prasad and Ahmed 2019, 494). In addition, Anna Gade connects the term habitus to the Islamic concept of adab, which she describes as proper and conditioned behaviour that
comprises both classical aspects of ‘ilm (knowledge) and ‘amal (actions). Gade points out that Sufis often deploy the term, and for them it enhances the dual aspects of the cultivation of virtue ethics as well as the regulation of behaviour in specific settings. Gade stresses that an adab, like Bourdieu’s habitus, is replicable, propagated through practice (Gade 2019, 125).
To view habitus as expressed through ideas from the Islamic tradition can perhaps in an eco- theological discourse emphasize how our intentional actions can contribute to the formation of an environmental conscience, and again how our environmental actions can contribute to a spiritual awakening of our human-nature- relationship, and ultimately our relationship to God.
Thus, habitus is quite useful in explaining some central arguments within the eco-theological
6 Abu Ali Ahmad ibn-Muhammad ibn Yaqub Miskawayh was an active scholar in many fields of knowledge in 10th century A.D. Iran. In the area of ethics, the Tahdhib is his most important and influential work.
discourse, where for example the development of a spiritual connection to nature and creation is done by studying and contemplating the signs of Allah.
However, habitus is best known through the works of French sociologist Bourdieu as a theoretical tool to explain how different class positions of individual subjects in society gets embodied and internalized through a number of unconscious processes. These structures of differences, according to Bourdieu also explains practices, tastes and lifestyles systematically distinct from the practices constituting another lifestyle. This entails that the subject is somehow disciplined to carry out social roles within different social fields, however, unconsciously. Seen in this way, habitus is created through a social, rather than individual process leading to patterns that are enduring and transferrable from one context to another, but that also shift in relation to specific contexts and over time and not necessarily a result of free will (Bourdieu 1984, 170).
Similarly, Jenifer Glancy, employ this term to uncover how slavery conditioned bodies and perceptions of bodies of individuals either as slaves or as free persons. Glancy argues that slavery at the time of early Christian thinking where so common that the habitus of slavery imbues the thinking of early Christian thinkers. This concept, she argues, helps understand why it was difficult for the first Christian generations to recognize slavery as a moral wrong (Glancy 2010, 147). Habitus in this sense is “embodied history, internalized as a second nature and forgotten as history” (Glancy 2010, 146). Habitus is, according to these examples, not something one is necessarily aware or conscience of and is dependent on both social, historical, cultural and socio-economic factors.
As illustrated, habitus is used to describe a highly conscious cultivation of desired virtues on the one hand, which can be useful to describe certain arguments in the eco-theological discourse.
However, on the other hand, I simultaneously find the way Glancy and Bourdieu emphasis of habitus as something hidden, embodied and habitual, and as a product of structural, historical and socio-economical realties useful in highlighting other aspects of this field. Like that of consumption habits and the ways religious symbols and branding can inform those consumption habits. Similarly, dealing with the environmental crises requires challenging concepts and epistemologies that are so deeply embedded within the structures of our societies, and following Glancy’s use of habitus, these structures are perhaps deeply embedded within our habitus as
well, through forms of consumption. These can be ideas linked to perpetual growth,
anthropocentrism and consumption in our contemporary way of life that we have come to depend on so much.
The dynamic between unknown actions and inclinations, and the conscience and aware subject or agent cultivating a practice of virtues and ethics are, in my opinion, interesting and useful as a theoretical tool in shedding light over the dynamic and complex ways human practices and habits consists of structures of both the conscience and the unconscious.
2.5 Conceptualizing Islamic Eschatology
The topic of Islamic eschatology many would argue is somehow woven into most religious discourse due to the centrality of eschatological elements in the Qur’an, hadith-literature and Islamic tradition. In addition, it is particularly interesting when viewed in light of the
environmental challenges in contemporary time, and in light of the proposed geological age of the Anthropocene, which will be addressed in the following section. As Islamic eschatology in connection to the Anthropocene will be discussed in chapter 6, it will be beneficial to outline a theoretical framework that will inform the discussion pertaining to eschatology. While
eschatological content varies tremendously, the belief that in the fullness of time there will occur a fundamental change of transformation in the world, often described as the dawning of a new era, in which conditions are radically different than the present era, are usually shared. Thus, the purpose of eschatological schemes, for Donner, is to situate the subject (individual, community or the cosmos) in the context of the new era (Donner 2017, 758). Donner presents eschatological schemes in conceptual categories, however, for the purpose of the theoretical framework relevant to the discussion, I will only present those befitting the Islamic eschatological scheme. In
addition, this will be seen in connection to some similarities and distinctions presented as secular eschatology7.
7 The word, eschatology, is derived from Greek te eschata and means “the last things”. It developed within Western
scholarship to designate those traditions that claim to know how things will ‘end up’ at the end of normal life (Donner 2017, 758). The term is also sometimes applied to phenomena that are not linked to a time after the end of
Islamic eschatology is conceptualized as linear (as opposed to a circular). This means the individual has a single birth and proceeds through life to a single death, while the world as we know it proceeds from a single point in creation to a single definite end-time, a ‘Last Day’. In linear systems, each individual has one life, and the ultimate fate after death depends on what is done in the present life (Donner 2017, 759). This entail a kind of urgency as the individual’s life entails a definite and inescapable ‘deadline’, namely our own ever-approaching death.
Donner differentiates between religious and secular eschatologies. While the Islamic
eschatology is an obviously religious one, as God in the Qur’an has decreed the end of time;
within secular eschatologies, “the end is brought about by the workings of the blind forces of nature, which is not intentional and does not know or care about human existence; or it is
brought about by human agency, which is intentional and ought to know better, but is heedless or ignorant and so fails to stave off the dire consequences” (Donner 2017, 760). Donners
description of secular eschatology can be applied to certain elements of the current mainstream environmental discourse, especially with regards to the effects of climate change and global warming. This discourse highlights severe consequences of impending disaster, lest humankind manage to curb the development before the point of no return.
The Islamic eschatology also classifies as an ‘other-worldly’ one, as scenarios are played out in a heavenly or other-worldly realm, such as the garden/ paradise (al-janna) or hell (Jahannam).
These represent the destination of individuals depending on how they behaved and are not portrayed as being part of the natural world; rather, they are depicted as perfect utopias or dystopias, in which the subject will experience either endless pleasure and bliss, or endless torment. Due to the element of a final (moral) judgement, in which the basis of one’s destination in the afterlife is determined, the Islamic eschatology can also be conceptualized as a moral eschatology. Interestingly, Donner briefly categorizes predictions of global environmental disaster, which will destroy everyone, as amoral in character (though much of their proponents may moralize against those who fail to act to thwart the impending doom) (Donner 2017, 766).
Further, Donner distinguishes between positive and negative eschatologies, in which positive ones are a form of soteriology – where the predictions are meant to help realize the salvation of the subject individual or group. Those eschatologies that anticipate a positive fate for the
followers (and is a further element of Islamic eschatology) can be called positive eschatologies.
Donner further differentiates between individual, communal and cosmic eschatologies, however, in my view, the Islamic eschatology contains elements of all these categories as it focuses on the fate of individuals and emphasize that your actions alone will be judged. In addition, there are Quranic instances where all the dead are described as being raised on judgement day and judged by God as communities, and each community goes to his destined fate apparently as a
community (Donner 2017, 767). This also raises the question of whether mere membership in the community outweighs the role of individual belief and behaviour (virtue vs. sin) in deciding one’s ultimate fate in the afterlife, a theological question, Donner points out, that often generates heated debate. However, while it is impossible to settle the dispute regarding the focus on the individual as opposed to the community with regards to judgement there seems to be emphasis on both individual and collective actions8.
Further, Islamic eschatology is cosmic as it presages the ultimate fate of the entire world.
Scenarios of environmental disasters (or plans for environmental salvation), according to Donner, are also conceptualized as cosmic, as their subject of salvation or destruction take no particular human community, but rather the whole of humanity, or even all life on earth (Donner 2017, 768). The Islamic eschatology can also be categorized as catastrophic, as it anticipates a situation in which all souls are consigned at the same time for their final judgement on the Day of Judgement at the end of time. Because this single last judgement marks the end of the normal continuum of time, it is also described as taking place immediately following a cosmic cataclysm or series of catastrophes that end the world as we know it and inaugurate the last judgement.
Finally, Islamic eschatology is future-oriented as it anticipates events that are destined to take place sometime in the future. However, the Qur’an contains references to the fate of past communities who have already suffered severe consequences, as in the stories of Sodom and Gomorrah and the Prophet Lot, Prophet Nuh (Noah) and the flood, the community of Thamud to name some. Donner argues that these stories can be called eschatological as they are framed as
8 The emphasis on individual and collective responsibilities have been formulated in juridical doctrine as well where
individual duties (Fard Ayn) refers to for example prayer, fasting, paying alms etc. and collective duties (Fard Kifaya), in legal doctrine is defined as a communal obligation discharged by the Muslim community as a whole.
This terminology is often used to discuss social responsibility, such as feeding the hungry, commanding good, and forbidding evil. (Fadl 2014, 140)
lessons meant to inform those who are still living, i.e., warning them to avoid the errors of these communities already “judged”. He classifies these as realized eschatologies because the fate of the community in question has been realized. Finally, the most pertinent classification, in my opinion, are instances of partly-realized eschatology that refers to schemes in which the events of the present are portrayed as the beginnings of the end-time or cataclysmic events associated with the last judgement. Such eschatologies combine an other-worldly orientation with the notion that the other-worldly fate of the subject group is not only imminent but already heralded by this-worldly events taking place in the present time. ‘Signs’ of the impending end time is particularly interesting with regards to current environmental challenges and discourse, and how these may be perceived within Muslim environmentalisms. A perspective that will be dealt with later in the chapter on Islamic eschatology.
2.6 The Holocene vs. the Anthropocene
As briefly mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, the notion of the Anthropocene refers to the naming of a new geological epoch, that includes the scale and impact of human activity on earth. This proposed geological epoch has a number of implications for theological and ethical considerations as it sends a powerful message pertaining to the destructive role humans play in the history of the earth. Further, it challenges theological notions of an all-powerful God, while at the same time evokes eschatological images of an irreversible destruction of the earth. Due to the fact that the Anthropocene is often utilized in a variety of contexts by researchers, poets, philosophers, politicians and activists, it might be useful to briefly clarify what it means
scientifically to be able to better comprehend what it could mean for theological considerations pertaining to ecology and eschatology.
The earth is about 4,5 billion years and the earth’s history has through the GST (geological time scale) been divided into various time periods. Each of these time periods contains characteristic events that has had geological impact, as well as changes to the life on earth. To be clear, the current official epoch is the Holocene, which began approximately 11,650 years ago marked by the glacial retreats thus ending the last major ice age (O’Hare 2019). This means that the primary question that needs to be answered before declaring the Anthropocene an actual official epoch is if humans have changed the Earth system to the point that it is reflected in the rock strata
(National Geographic 2019).
Another question that scientists are grappling with is establishing the beginning of the
Anthropocene, and thus the border demarcating the Holocene. While there is a general consensus that Carbon dioxide emissions, global warming, ocean acidification, habitat destruction,
extinction and widescale natural resource extraction are all signs that we have significantly modified our planet, there is no consensus to the presence of these changes in the geological and fossil records (Pavid 2020). The ‘golden spike’, in this context, refers to a marker in the fossil records which could demarcate the Holocene from the Anthropocene. The marker would have to be so significant that it would be detectable in rock layers thousands and even millions of years into the future (Pavid 2020). Some scientists have suggested that a possible boundary could be defined by the presence of radioactive particles in the soil around the world, an ubiquitous phenomenon observed after major events involving nuclear activity such as the second world war and the Chernobyl nuclear disaster (O’Hare 2019). Others contend that the marker should be linked to the start of the industrial revolution in the 1800’s, when human activity started to have a great impact on carbon and methane levels in the earth’s atmosphere (National Geographic 2019). Scientists are also studying to find out whether plastic could be a key marker of the Anthropocene as earth is awash with plastic, and millions of tons are still produced every day.
Because plastic doesn’t biodegrade, some evidence suggest that plastic is being deposited into the fossil records (Pavid 2020).
I bring these examples to light in order to indicate three things. First, there is no scientific consensus to officially declare the Anthropocene or to establish the boundary between the Holocene and the Anthropocene. However, these examples of suggested markers do attest to some grave evidences that human activities in a variety of ways will be visible for a long time to come, though geologists disagree on whether this will have a lasting and meaningful impact on the chemical composition of the rocks and fossils in the earth thousands or even millions of years to come. Second, the marking of the Anthropocene would send a powerful message that the human race is now a geological force of nature, to the extent that the planet is being altered, not as a result of natural causes but as a result of human activity. Because the Anthropocene is closely linked to discourse on how the planetary condition will pose challenges to human life on earth, it is in effect a kind of secular eschatology that brings with it questions of finitude,
irreversibility and an absolute temporal ending (Rothe 2020, 147).
Third, while the proposed Anthropocene is a highly scientific discussion pertaining to the geologic time scale (GTS), it is commonly invoked in various disciplines with a wide range of meanings, and often cultural. The word is utilized by researchers, poets, philosophers, politicians and activist, thus making this a highly ethical concept invoked to criticize the contemporary human way of life. Often the Anthropocene is simply used to describe the time during which humans have had substantial impact on our planet. Whether or not we are in a new geological age, we are part of a complex, global system in which our impact has become evident. In this sense, the Anthropocene as a cultural and ethical concept is read as a critique and forces an awareness of both the current state of the planet and the effects of our actions in it. Though there are splaying expressions of the Anthropocene, it is still a construct that raises theological
concerns. In what ways are the Anthropocene challenging theology? How is this expressed in Islamic eco-theology? Can the Anthropocene be compatible with Islamic eschatology? Though my thesis does not allow me to provide definitive answers to these questions, I will discuss them further in chapter 6. In addition, these questions are raised to indicate the challenges the
Anthropocene poses, and point to issues pertaining to philosophical, theological and ethico- religious aspects that may demand more elaborate answers in future eco-theologies.