Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis 2019:51
Analyzing aspects of land-
use sustainability in Tanzania:
Current forest degradation, urban charcoal demand, and impacts of future firewood and charcoal consumption
Analyse av aspekter ved bærekraftig skogforvaltning i Tanzania: Dagens
skogforringelse, etterspørsel etter trekull i byområder og konsekvenser av framtidig forbruk av ved og trekull
Norwegian University of Life Sciences Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management
Analyzing aspects of land-use sustainability in Tanzania:
Current forest degradation, urban charcoal demand, and impacts of future firewood and charcoal consumption
Analyse av aspekter ved bærekraftig skogforvaltning i Tanzania:
Dagens skogforringelse, etterspørsel etter trekull i byområder og konsekvenser av framtidig forbruk av ved og trekull
Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis Greyson Zabron Nyamoga
Norwegian University of Life Sciences
Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management Ås (2019)
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Department of Forest Resource Management, Division of Forest Planning Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
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DEDICATION
This Doctoral Thesis is dedicated to my lovely mum Amokile A.H.M. Kyengula who taught me how to read and write at home and when I started my education journey in standard one at Lusinga Primary School, to my late Grandfather Andrea Matesu Kyengula (R.I.P), to my late Father Zabron Yohana Nyamoga (R.I.P), to my wife Rosemary and daughters Glory, Genevieve & Gabriella. It is difficult to imagine my life at this point without my mum, she has played multiple roles in my life and she is so wonderful. She sacrificed many things to ensure that I got all I needed for my school. I cannot thank her enough but she will remain a special woman of my life forever. Genevieve and Gabriella missed my time, care and love as Father in their early stages of life. Despite joining me in Ås – Norway, they still struggled because of spending most of my time in the office for academic activities hence making my wife Rosemary always busy with them in my absence. I should confess that Rosemary did a very good job.
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