And why should I go to the museum?
The museum as a learning arena for the kindergarten Examples from Norway and Greece
Maria Dardanou
Master’s Degree Programme in Pedagogy (PED 3900)
Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Education Department for Teacher’s Education and Pedagogy
University of Tromsø Spring 2011
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I listen and forget, I see and remember, I do and understand.
Old Chinese proverb
Στον αγαπημένο μου γιό Ούλαφ Σπύρο
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank both Norwegian and Greek kindergarten teachers for participating in the present study.
I would like to thank my supervisor Mrs. Rita Tiller for all her genuine support, guidance and belief in my project.
I would like to thank all my student fellows in the Master room for making my study time more pleasant. Specially thanks to my study fellow and friend Lisbeth for her help with the language.
A special thank to my friends and colleagues in Greece Miss Marianthi Kalafati and Miss Niki Kantzou for their support and help during this work. Special thanks also to my friend Katerina for her help during the final stages of my work and good luck with her master studies in Trondheim.
Many thanks to my beloved parents who have always supported me sentimentally and finically, through all my study years, both on graduate and postgraduate level.
Finally, my warm thanks to my husband and my son who have supported me through this Dissertation and showed patience and understanding.
Tromsø, May 2011 Maria Dardanou
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Contents
ABSTRACT ... 9
FOREWORD ... 10
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ... 11
LIST OF APPENDICES ... 13
CHAPTER ONE − INTRODUCTION ... 14
1.1 Statement of the problem ... 14
1.2 Background information ... 15
1. 2. 1 Museum and museum education ... 15
1.3 Introduction to theories of the learning process ... 17
1.3.1 Behaviorist theory ... 18
1.3.2 Cognitive and constructivist theory ... 19
1.3.3 Social-cultural theory ... 20
1.3.4 Discovery learning ... 21
1.4 The importance of learning in the kindergarten ... 21
1.4.1 Learning in the early years and the museum ... 22
1.5 Evolution of Preschool Education ... 23
1.5.1 The Norwegian Barnehage (Kindergarten)... 24
1.5.2 The Greek Νηπιαγωγείο (public Kindergarten) ... 26
1.6 Earlier research ... 28
1.7 The use of terms in the current research ... 31
1.2.8 The purpose of the study ... 32
CHAPTER TWO − REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ... 34
2.1 Introduction to the theoretical frameworks of museum education ... 34
2.1.1 Constructivism, social-cultural theory and learning in the museum ... 35
2.1.2 Multiple Intelligences theory and the museum ... 37
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2.1.3 Experiential learning, learning-by-doing in the museum ... 39
2.2 Curriculum Studies and the museum ... 41
2.3 Museum: Just an experience, or something more? ... 43
2.4 The museum as an informal learning environment ... 44
2.5 Visual Literacy and Aesthetic Experience ... 45
2.6 Object-based learning ... 47
2.7 Learning in the museum and the kindergarten ... 49
2.7.1 The curriculum of the Greek kindergarten and the museum ... 51
2.7.2 Museum education and the Norwegian kindergarten curriculum ... 53
2.8 Educational programs in the museum for kindergarten children ... 55
2.8.1 Evaluation of museum educational programs... 58
2.9 Examples of educational programs ... 60
2.9.1 Example of an educational program at the Greek Folk Art Museum in Athens, Greece ... 60
2.9.2 Example of an educational program at the Norwegian Museum of Science and Technology in Oslo, Norway ... 62
2.9.3 Example of an observed day with kindergarten children at Tromsø Museum in Tromsø, Norway ... 64
CHAPTER THREE − RESEARCH DESIGN ... 66
3.1 Introduction ... 66
3.2 Research Tools ... 66
3.2.1 Questionnaire ... 66
CHAPTER FOUR − METHODS ... 69
4.1 Introduction ... 69
4.2 Choice of subjects ... 69
4.2.1 Participants kindergarten teachers in Norway ... 70
4.2.2 Participants kindergarten teachers in Greece ... 71
4.3 Procedure and data collection ... 72
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4.4 Data analysis ... 75
4.5 Reliability and validity ... 75
CHAPTER FIVE − RESULTS ... 76
5.1 Introduction ... 76
5.2 Results ... 76
CHAPTER SIX − DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSSIONS ... 104
6.1 Discussion ... 104
6.2 Conclusions ... 111
6.3 Limitations of the study and further research possibilities ... 113
References ... 115
Internet and other sources ... 128
APPENDICES ... 130
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9
ABSTRACT
This study presents the concepts in practice regarding museum as a learning arena for kindergarten children. Information was obtained by kindergarten teachers both in Norway and in Greece, through questionnaires. The findings indicated that kindergarten teachers in Norway and in Greece have a positive attitude towards museum use in relation to their National Curriculum for the kindergarten.
Consequently, almost all the fields of the Norwegian and the Greek Curriculum for kindergarten can be connected with the museum uses, according to the research findings. The findings supported the literature, suggesting that kindergarten teachers‟
acquired knowledge related to museum education affects their museum uses.
Additionally, it was indicated that there is a connection between the awareness of kindergarten teachers regarding learning in a museum context and museum uses through designing and carrying out of their own programs for their kindergarten children inside the museum setting. Furthermore, the impacts on preschool children of their participation in museum educational programs are positive and related to the learning theories, according to both Norwegian and Greek kindergarten teachers. In order to investigate these concepts, the researcher used questionnaires distributed to kindergarden teachers in Greece (Athens) and Norway (Tromsø and Oslo) and which were analyzed quantitatively.
Keywords: learning, museum education, kindergarten, curriculum, Norway, Greece.
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FOREWORD
Museums are considered as rich, joyful and stimulating environments which provide opportunities for learning and involve emotional and motivational cues for children.
The present study is an outcome of the researcher‟s personal interest about the learning perspectives in the museum for kindergarten children. Regarding its structure, this study includes two parts: the theoretical and the empirical.
The theoretical part begins with Chapter 1, where an elucidation of terms which will hinder this dissertation is displayed. Specifically, it includes an introduction to the theories of the learning process and the learning perspectives for preschool children.
In addition, there is a reference to both the Norwegian and Greek kindergarten regarding their educational and operation practice. Finally, there are stated relevant earlier research on learning in the museum and the research questions which will be investigated in the specific study.
In Chapter 2 it is discussed the connection of different learning theories with museum education, such as constructivism, Multiple Intelligences theory and experiential learning approaches. Moreover, there is a reference relatively to the museum as an informal learning environment and its contribution to aesthetic appreciation and development of visual literacy. Especially, it is illustrated the Norwegian and Greek National Curriculum for kindergarten and their connection with learning in the museum. Lastly, there is a presentation regarding the practice of museum educational programs for kindergarten, their evaluation, and there are given three examples of observed programs in museums.
The empirical part of this study is underlain in Chapter 3, which refers to the research design; specifically, it is illustrated the choice of the research tool in the specific investigation, which is the questionnaire. In addition, Chapter 4 is addressed to the choice of subjects of this study, as well to the procedure of the data collection and the reliability and validity of the research. Chapter 5 concerns the quantitative analysis of the gathered data, both descriptively and preliminarily. Finally, Chapter 6 includes the discussion of the results in relation to the research questions and the literature overview. The researcher is conducted into her conclusions and takes into consideration the limitations of this study. Thus, she suggests research possibilities for further investigations in relations to the findings.
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 2.1: The Interactive Experience Model 43
Figure 2.2: Connection between the fields of the Greek curriculum
for kindergarten and the museum 52
Figure 4.1: Distribution of the questionnaire items in relation
to the research questions 74
Table 5.1: Gender of the participants (Greece and Norway) 76 Figure 5.1: Educational level of the participants (Greece/ Norway) 77 Figure 5.2: Years of working experience (Greece and Norway) 78 Figure 5.3: Years of working experience (Greece/Norway) 78 Figure 5.4: Knowledge related to museum education (Greece and Norway) 79 Figure 5.5: Comparison between Greece and Norway concerning
acquired knowledge related to museum education 80 Table 5.2: Correlation between acquired knowledge related to learning inside the museum and kindergarten teachers as educators (Norway and Greece) 80 Table 5.3: Correlation between countries of origin (Norway/Greece),
acquired knowledge related to museum education
and kindergarten teachers as educators 81
Table 5.4: Classification of knowledge about learning
inside the museum (Greece/Norway) 83
Figures 5.6-5.7: Frequency of museum uses during
a school year (Greece and Norway) 84
Figures 5.8-5.9: Frequency of museum uses during
a school year (Greece/Norway) 84
Figures 5.10-5.11: Awareness of offered museum
educational programs (Greece/Norway) 85
Table 5.5: Correlation between the country of origin and the
awareness of offered museum educational programs 86 Figure 5.12: To what extent will children increase their skills or acquire
new after participating in a museum educational program (Greece and Norway) 86 Table 5.6: To what extent will children increase their skills or acquire
12 new after participating in a museum educational program (Greece/Norway) 87 Table 5.7: Fields of the National Curriculum associated
with the museum/Greece 88
Table 5.8: Fields of the National Curriculum associated
with the museum/Norway 89
Figures 5.13-5.14: Museum uses (Greece/Norway) 90
Table 5.9: Museum uses in relation with acquired knowledge
about museum education 91
Table 5.10: Correlation between country, acquired knowledge
about Museum education and museum uses 92
Table 5.11: Specification of museum uses (Greece/Norway) 93 Table 5.12: Reasons for not visiting museums/attending
programs (Greece and Norway) 94
Table 5.13: Reasons for not visiting museums/attending
programs (Greece/Norway) 95
Figure 5.15: Kindergarten teachers as educators in programs held inside
museums for their kindergarten children (Greece/Norway) 97 Figures 5.16-5.17: Relation between acquired knowledge about
museum education and kindergarten teachers as self educators
in museum programs for their kindergarten children 97 Table 5.14: Comparison of working experience and kindergarten
teachers as educators (Norway and Greece) 98
Table 5.15: Fields of the National Curriculum related to kindergarten
teachers’ designed programs in the museum/Greece 99 Table 5.16: Fields of the National Curriculum related to kindergarten
teachers’ designed programs in the museum/Norway 100 Table 5.17: Kindergarten teachers’ conceptions about the benefits for
children from attending programs in museums (Greece and Norway) 102 Table 5.18: Kindergarten teachers’ conceptions about the benefits for
children from attending programs in museums (Greece/Norway) 103
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A
1. Information letter to Greek Folk Art Museum in Athens,
Greece and consent of observation 130
2. Information letter to Norwegian Museum of Science and Technology in Oslo,
Norway and consent of observation 133
3. Educational program at the Greek Folk Art Museum, Athens, Greece 135 4. Educational program at the Norwegian Museum
of Science and Technology, Oslo, Norway 136
5. Observed day with kindergarten children at
Tromsø Museum, Tromsø, Norway 137
Appendix B
1. Information letter to Kindergarten Training School in Athens, Greece
and consent of participation in the research 138
2. Information letter to kindergarten teachers in Oslo and Tromsø, Norway 140 3. Questionnaire distributed to Norwegian kindergarten
teachers in Oslo and Tromsø 142
4. Questionnaire distributed to Greek kindergarten teachers 146
5. Questionnaire (English Version) 150
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CHAPTER ONE − INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the problem
In the late years discussions concerning the process of learning are more and more frequent. While learning traditionally is understood as the acquisition of knowledge and skills, nowadays, an extent field of emotional, social and communal dimensions is included in this perspective. The context of learning refers both to the skills and knowledge as well as the meanings, values, concepts and behaviors, which can contribute in the construction of understanding and perception (Illeris 2009).
The museum is a place with an intense social, educational and entertaining role which, through its educational programs, facilitates social interaction among children and aims at their emotional, social and cognitive development; particularly, it encourages critical thinking, creativity, discovery and initiative. Museum experience is in the boarders between enjoyment and learning. The communicative role of the post- modern museum is a part of the reasons why there is a rapid growth in interest towards museums. Since museums offer unusual and effective experiences, are, therefore, considered unique learning environments. The role of the museum has changed from merely exhibiting objects to interaction with objects. Visitors approach museum settings based on their own meanings, experiences, knowledge and values.
Gardner (1991) claims that museums interest children since they are settings wherein children can discover, do, interact, understand, and thereafter, learn.
The overall objective of this study is to gain an understanding of the educational role of the museum in the preschool age. The conclusions will be resulting from the investigation of kindergarten teachers‟ concepts regarding learning in the museum and the quote of museum educational programs for preschool children. As the background of this researcher is from Greece, and her study place is located in Norway, the investigation will include both countries; this will, eventually, lead in a comparison of the results from the two countries in order to examine if there is any differentiation of the kindergarten teachers‟ concepts related to the impact on preschool children of museum as a learning arena and its connection with the National Curricula for kindergarten in both countries.
15 1.2 Background information
1. 2. 1 Museum and museum education
Museum1 is undoubtedly a valuable source of cultural, historical, scientific and aesthetic knowledge. According to current definitions2, museums are institutions in the service of the society and its development and open to the public; they aim at the acquisition, maintenance, investigation, documentation, communication and exhibition of humans‟ material testimonies and their environment, for the purposes of study, education and entertainment. However, in the mind of many people, visiting a museum is still characterized by passivity and is restricted to a simple observation of the exhibits, whereby the public is unable to interact with the museum objects.
In the nineteenth-century, museum acknowledgement as an educational institute was already accomplished. However, it was George Brown Goode3 who highlighted the efficient role of the museum (Hein 2006 cited in Macdonald 2006). In the recent years, museum education4 has acquired a considerable growing interest. Changes in education concern a turn of interest from the didactic-behaviouristic methods towards learning models requiring the active participation of children. Education at the museum focuses on the enrichment of experiences through the process of experimental active learning and aims at the meaning rather than the barrage of information.
1The word Museum in nowadays doesn‟t address to the same meaning as the Greek word Μοσσείον (Μouseion) where its roots belong to. In the ancient years the word Μνπζείνλ referred to the place of worship of Muses, ancient Goddesses of Art, Music, Poetry, Dance, etc. The term took the same meaning as today during the period of Renaissance (Kakourou-Xroni 2010).
2International Council of Museums (2007), “museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of the society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates, and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment”, http://archives.icom.museum/hist_def_eng.html.
3George Brown Goode, curator and administrator at the Smithsonian Institution (1851-96).
4Museum education or museum learning or museum pedagogy are terms that are used to define “the applied education with action setting the museum and the scientific direction which assists in fulfilling the educational role of the museum to the community” (Nikonanou 2010:15).
16 Moreover, the learning perspectives in the museum are rapidly developed in the last four decades. Many museums in the world are reviewing and enriching their social and educational role with the pursuit of productive pedagogical and cultural policies.
The operation of the museum includes the presentation of objects and collections, and the designing and implement of various educational projects for school groups and adults. The teacher, by including museum educational projects in her curriculum, offers children the opportunity to be familiar with the term museum; therefore, she can use it as a means of enriching knowledge and awareness regarding different thematic areas.
The late 30 years museum is also open to communication with its audience. It is a fact that most of the visitors think of their museum visit as a social activity during their leisure time. Nevertheless, it is highlighted that early childhood‟s visiting experiences can have positive impacts on individuals and can be connected with “sustained museum visitation in the future” (Zapri 2004:64). Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu et al.
1991) researched visitors at different art museums in Europe (included Greece), and noticed that their cultural capital which is a heritage of their family and social surroundings, and is also enhanced by the educational system, can be related as well to their relationship with the museum and their museum experiences.
Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the following elements regarding museums: the communication between the museum and the audience, the careful design of the interpreting tools (interactive exhibits, sort explanatory texts, accompanying maps, images and graphics, etc.), the ensuring of the physical dimension of the visit (easy orientation, rest and entertainment areas, etc.), and the bringing of minority and marginalized social groups closer with programs organized inside and outside the museum. Hereby, Bourdieu‟s (Bourdieu et al. 1991) research highlighted some of museum characteristics related to its potentials for visiting, such as its easy accessibility and the type of presenting the exhibits.
In particular, regarding its educational role, museum education includes designed activities which are defined by some specific didactic aims. In relation to these activities, they could be, for example, collecting objects, designing exhibitions, or educational programs for school groups or adults. Part of the museum education is Museum Pedagogy which investigates scientifically the pedagogical and museological
17 principles determining the context of the educational design of the programs and their evaluation policies (Hooper-Greenhill 1991).
1.2.1.1 Museums in Norway and Greece
Museums in Norway started firstly at a local level whereas nowadays there‟re can be found in small communities as well. There are about 500 museums in the country and most of them (around 300) belong to the National Museum Association of Norway.
Moreover, the Arts Council of Norway5 has also an important role to the development of new museum sectors in the country, both in local and national level (Zenetou 1996 cited in Glaser & Zenetou 1996).
On the other hand, the first National Museum of Greek Antiquities was established in 1829, after the Greek War of Revolution in 1821 which had as a result the creation of the new state of Greece in 1830. In nowadays Greece has approximately 420 museums; the majority of museums is archeological and contains exhibits from different phases of the Greek history. The Ministry of Culture is responsible for museum operation. Greek people are very proud of their Ancient History and museums are places were history can be displayed. Moreover, Universities like the Ionian in Greece and University of Oslo in Norway6, offer studies on Museology. In Greece, as well as in Norway, there are museums like Children‟s Museums7, which provide opportunities to children to fulfill their needs through their experiences (Zenetou 1996 cited in Glaser & Zenetou 1996).
1.3 Introduction to theories of the learning process
There are many and different kind of learning theories; every theory approaches learning from a different dimension and they are all useful and important. According to Black (2005:129), learning is considered as “both a process and an outcome−the process is about how we learn, is explored below. The outcome is about what we gain
5http://www.norskkulturrad.no/
6As well as other four Universities which offer one-year scholarships or courses (Zenetou 1996 cited in Glaser & Zenetou 1996).
7Hellenic Children‟s Museum in Athens (http://www.hcm.gr/); Norsk Barnemuseum in Stavanger (http://www.norskbarne.museum.no/).
18 from learning−knowledge, and the great leap from gathering of knowledge to understanding it”.
Even though it is difficult to be investigated, learning has long term results. Therefore, learning is a process used as a short term means for long term impacts. Learning, according to Bruner (1960:48 quoted in Hooper-Greenhill 1994:144), “involves acquiring and absorbing new information, skills or experiences and making sense of these in relation to what is already known”. Hence, prior experience and experience are both significant in the learning process.
According to Kolb‟s theory, experience is a major element for learning, along with the perception and the process. As Kolb (1984:38) argues, “learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”. Kolb is introducing the four stages of the learning process: concrete experience (Do and involve in the experience), reflective observation (Observe and describe the ideas and situations), abstract conceptualization (Think and use logic) and active experimentation (Plan and act practically) (Kolb 1984; Black 2005). Kolb (Black 2005) suggests that learning can be contributive through experiential learning and that it should be also taken into consideration the individual‟s personal characteristics.
Thereafter it is a brief reference in some learning theories which have influenced in the late decades the perspectives of learning.
1.3.1 Behaviorist theory
The pedagogical theories which were formed during the 20th century argued that there are alternative ways in the perception of reality. More specifically, Behaviorism claimed that there are alternative ways of approaching the truth. Regardless of the type of knowledge, learning is based on teaching and corresponding of the child‟s reactions (model of stimulus–response); behaviorism as a teaching method pointed out that every stimulus causes response, and if this response is positive, then it should be rewarded. Moreover, according to Behaviorism and its supporters, internal processes taking place during learning are not so important, as the changes in the individual‟s behavior; (Ntoliopoulou 2000).
Nevertheless, as Ntoliopoulou continues (2000), behaviorism focuses both on the behavior of the individual and the role of the external conditions regarding the
19 perception of the world. Behaviorism emphasizes on individual learning, as well as teaching in small groups. Additionally, it is accented the role of motives and imitation which are more external than internal. Hence, motivation and imitation can be succeeded through positive reinforcements.
1.3.2 Cognitive and constructivist theory
Jean Piaget (Schunk 2004) considered development as a natural process based on cognitive stages. Children‟s thinking is developed through specific phases and stages8 which are independent from the education; language, on the other hand, is an indicator for the change of thinking. Piaget (Alevriadou et al. 2008) argued that children construct knowledge gradually, through their own activities. Learning follows development and it is carried out with participation and self-construction. The educational theory of constructivism is based on Piaget‟s arguments; constructivism refers to the constructive way of acquiring knowledge and the constant adaption to the environment.
Moreover, constructivism emphasizes on the existing perceptions, ideas and representations of the learner. According to the constructivist view, cognition is a meaning-making process based on every experience of the individual. The structure of knowledge is, therefore, based on former experiences, cognitive structures, beliefs, etc., in order to interpret objects or facts.
Regarding constructivism, Hein9 and Alexander (1998:35-36) argues that:
The constructivism quadrant postulates that learning requires active participation of the learner both in the way that the mind is employed and in the product of the activity – the knowledge that is acquired.
The specific model of learning attributes to the role of the child as an active learner.
Meanings are not static, simple-making or decisive and they are responsible for the
8More specifically and summarized, the stages of the child‟s cognitive development are: i) sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), ii) preoperational or intuitive (2 to 7 years), iii) operational thinking (7 to 11 years), and iv) formal operational (11 to adult), (Gardner 1991; Schunk 2004).
9George E. Hein is known for introducing the concept of the constructivist museum where knowledge is constructed and interpreted by the visitors in relation with the exhibits and their meaning;
constructivist museum is focusing less to the objects and more to the visitor.
20 creation of interpretations. Children‟s participation, as Malaguzzi argued (Alevriadou et al. 2008) should be in focus; hereby, children can act autonomously in the meaning- making process based on their everyday experiences and through their intellectual actions which include design, coordination of concepts and deduction.
1.3.3 Social-cultural theory
Lev Vygotsky (Roopnarine & Johnson 2009) and other theorists introduced a social based theory of development which highlights the role of social-cultural factors in the perception of knowledge, the process of learning and the development of the individual; in addition, social-cultural theory underlines the significance of the interaction between the individual and the social environment. Learning includes both internal and external processes.
The interpersonal relationships are in the center of the learning process and are also collaborative. Language and thought are effective elements of the process as well as culture and social surroundings. Language contributes in the reflection of knowledge.
The individual is enriching the society and the society enriches the individual (Schunk 2004).
Thus, Vygotsky (Schunk 2004) argued that social interaction contributes to the cognitive development through the implement of children‟s experiential representations. Moreover, an important factor in the child‟s development is the zone of proximal development10, as Vygotsky had argued (Dafermou et al. 2007;
Roopnarine & Johnson 2009); the teacher can select the appropriate educational methods taking into consideration the child‟s zone of proximal development, and his previous representations, knowledge, interests, in order to achieve positive results in the learning process. The meaning of the zone of proximal development is not only related to a personal or common process; the learning environment inside the educational settings can be the zone of proximal development for children. Playing can create the possibilities for children to learn beyond the adults zones of control and
10Vygotsky argues that the child can be taught only what it is capable of learning and introduced the theory of the zone of proximal development; the zone of proximal development is entitled with the distance between the real level of development of the child and the level of its potential development (Dafermou et al. 2007; Roopnarine & Johnson 2009).
21 develop their own zones whereby their activities (social, psychological or personal) are interactive (Alevriadou et al. 2008).
1.3.4 Discovery learning
Jerome Bruner (Whitebread 1996) supports learning through discovery and investigation where children participate in the learning process, and suggests the spiral curriculum11. Despite from the fact that Piaget‟s theory has inspired Bruner, he (Schunk 2004) disagrees with Piaget on the age limits of the development and he suggests that, with increasing the social interactions of the child, his/her cognitive development will also be expedited. Bruner12 argues that there are three stages of cognitive processing: i) attention to information ii) encoding and retrieval, where automaticity can be an important factor of the process, and iii) metacognition, which develops gradually to children.
Ambrose and Paine (2006:47) claim that discovery learning represents the world through three models, “the enactive (where representation occurs through actions), the iconic (where representation involves building up a mental picture of things one has experienced) and the symbolic (where representation takes place through symbols)”.
A concept can be represented by each child with a unique and different way, depending on the how he/she has understood it; young children can learn anything by just teaching them in a language they understand. Thus, through discovery learning, children expand their knowledge, play and handle objects, investigate, edit stimuli and information, discover strategies that will help them “learn how to learn” (Alevriadou et al. 2008:18). The theory of discovery learning maintains that the teacher‟s role is to activate children in the learning process, find the appropriate method for each child according to his/her abilities and initiate him/her (Black 2005).
1.4 The importance of learning in the kindergarten
Preschool institutions constitute a context where children become members of a small society for the first time and they compose their personal identities based on their
11The spiral curriculum views that “anything can be taught to children of any age, provided it is presented in a way which is accessible to them”, so that it is understood in more symbolic or abstract way later in their adult life (Whitebread 1996:5).
12Ibid
22 contact with the others. Therefore, learning inside the preschool environment can be defined as a social activity based on the child‟s interpersonal relationship with the other children (Dafermou et al. 2007). Furthermore, Hein (2001:5) argues that
“children are not born with the ability to interpret the world as their elders do. They have to learn the meaning of things and they do as gradually as they mature mentally and physically and gain experience”. The significance of experiences is in the center of the preschool education.
The creation of groups in the kindergarten can contribute to the adoption of social behaviorist forms and promote ripening qualities such as self-motivation, initiative or creativity. Some of the basic principles of early childhood education are the holistic, harmonious and balanced development of mental and psychosomatic forces of children; in addition, education emphasizes on the development of children‟s creativity, critical thinking, as well as the building of friendship, cooperation and successful social integration (Dafermou et al. 2007).
In particular, any new knowledge is acquired by the child through his/her formed images or schemata; therefore, it is necessary to detect these schemata and enhance them with new knowledge. As every child has his/her own unique experiences, he/she has also different schemata and acquires knowledge in a different way. The teacher must create the appropriate circumstances to help the child obtain knowledge within his/her own former schemata (Sotto 1994).
1.4.1 Learning in the early years and the museum
The fact that museums are leisure settings where visiting can be optional and occasional, has characterized their learning significance and potentials on a considerable level. Learning in the museum has also been referred as “meaningful learning”13, since visitors‟ prior knowledge is a part of the new experiences acquired in the museum environment, through different kind of activities.
13“Meaningful learning implies that the new information, be it new facts, attitudes, or feelings, is linked to existing information in a learners knowledge structure in such a way that the learner is able to recall the information after extended periods of time and to apply these ideas to new situations or problems”
(Falk & Dierking 1995:12).
23 The term of museum education is connected with the education for the museum and education through the museum (Hooper-Greenhill 1991). As Vemi (2006:14) claims, in order to achieve a successful connection between the school and the museum, it is necessary to find a “common language” between them. However, learning, as Falk and Dierking claimed (1992:99),”is strongly influenced by what we know and feel as well as by associated visual and tactile information”. Therefore, learning in the museum takes into account the former experiences and set them as a basis for the out- coming knowledge and development.
Whereas learning is a process that implies the co-existence of the individual with the others, Falk & Dierking (2000:38) argue that “learning, particularly in museums, is a fundamentally social experience”. Social relations are increased inside the museum, wherein children create groups, cooperate and interact socially, by gaining meaningful experiences. The communication between the visitor and the museum is based on the interaction among personal, social and natural factors (Falk & Dierking 1992). Thus, Dewey (Hein 2004) emphasized on the significant connection between the school and the opportunities for learning that are provided outside the school settings. The long-term learning outcomes of experiences in museums are affected by the contextual nature of learning and are related both to the individual and the circumstances within they occur.
1.5 Evolution of Preschool Education
In the 18th century J.J. Rousseau introduced an educational program which aimed on the satisfactory of the child‟s needs; therefore, then education was adjusted to age and started with exercising the child‟s senses. During this period I.H. Pestalozzi14 argued that the child‟s education should not be obstructed by its social situation. The founder of Preschool Education and teaching methodology of infants is considered to be Frederic Froebel15, who established the first form of Kindergarten16 in 1837 in Germany. Froebel was the first who designed an integrated system for preschool education and he introduced playing as a teaching method. Moreover, he suggested
14(1746-1827), (Ntoliopoulou 2000)
15(1782-1837), Ibid
16The word kindergarten means in German children’s garden and many times it is mentioned also as infant or nursery school, (Ntoliopoulou 2000).
24 that children learn easier through their own activities and experiences, especially through playing. Froebel‟s ideas were quite popular in Germany and in many European countries as well (Ntoliopoulou 2000).
Decroly (Ntoliopoulou 2000:35-36) made another epistemological effort for the evolution of preschool education and established „the school with life for life‟17; additionally, the doctor and pedagogue Maria Montessori18 from Italy claimed that knowledge is based on the child‟s views of the world and that the development of knowledge is followed by the education of the senses.
Additionally, in the 20th century, preschool education has been influenced enormously from different theories of learning like behaviorism, cognitive and social-cultural theory, constructivism, etc. (see also Chapters 1.3.1-1.3.4, pp.16-19); most recently (during the late two or three decades), new programs have appeared in the preschool education, like the Bank Street approach, the High/Scope and Kamii and DeVries models, the Reggio Emilia approach, Gardner‟s Multiple Intelligences theory, etc.
1.5.1 The Norwegian Barnehage (Kindergarten)
The first pre-primary institution, the child asylum, was founded in Trondheim in 183719. The tern Barnehage20 is used for the school settings appropriate for children between the ages of one until the age of five (Lov av 17. Juni 2005 nr. 64 om barnehager). For the purpose of this study, the term kindergarten will be used when it is referred to the Norwegian Barnehage (kindergarten). The attendance to the kindergarten in Norway is not compulsory until the age of six years. The working personal in the kindergarten has the appropriate educational and administrative management knowledge (Lov av 17. Juni 2005 nr. 64 om barnehager); the
17Decroly espoused observation as the beginning and development of mental acts and the method of
“the whole” where all the acts, ideas, thoughts are entireties (Ntoliopoulou 2000).
18Montessori‟s method focuses on the sensory, kinetic, linguistic education, as well as the education of reading, writing and mathematics and it includes the use of many materials which aim on those purposes. On the other hand, the role of the teacher is to prepare the environment according the needs of the children, so that they will explore their surroundings inquisitively (Ntoliopoulou 2000).
19http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/eurybase_full_reports/NO_EN.pdf
20The term Barnehage was firstly used in the first Kindergarten Act in 1975 to name all the institutions that are occupied with pre-primary education (Ibid).
25 kindergarten teacher has education as a „førskolelærer‟ (preschool teacher) from a University college (Høgskole) or a University21 which provides academic and educational practice. The pedagogical leader must have a preschool education which is also a minimum three years University college education or University(Lov av 17.
Juni 2005 nr. 64 om barnehager). The duration of kindergarten education was 2 years until the early „80s, when an extra year was added (3 years) and it hasn‟t been changed since then. Usually the kindergartens belong to the municipality22, but they can also be private kindergartens, family, or open kindergartens which are all coeducational and approved by each municipality (Lov av 17. Juni 2005 nr. 64 om barnehager).
In the Norwegian kindergarten children are often divided in two groups according to their age; one group includes children between the age of one to three years old and the other group includes children between the age of three and six years old.
Nevertheless, there are some kindergartens which include in the same group children from one to six years old. Every group has its own „classroom base‟ as well as their responsible kindergarten teachers/pedagogical leaders and assistants. Every pedagogical leader is responsible for 14-18 children over the age of three and 9 children between the age of one year old to three years old. The normal opening hour for the Norwegian kindergarten is between 07.30 in the morning until 16.30-17.00 in the afternoon.
The Norwegian kindergartens used to fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Child and Family Affairs whereas since 2005 the Ministry of Education and Research is responsible for their operation. The Act for kindergarten in 2005 replaced the previous acts of 1975 and 1995. The Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of kindergartens (Rammeplan) was revised in 1st March 2006 and it has not changed since then23. The Framework Plan refers to the educational context of the Norwegian kindergarten and includes the specific fields in which the curriculum is focused.
21Some university colleges have been changed into universities and in the next years will graduate the first kindergarten teachers from them.
22The municipalities are responsible for the kindergartens (for operation, buildings and maintenance, intake of pupils and the appointment of teachers).
23http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/eurybase_full_reports/NO_EN.pdf
26 1.5.2 The Greek Νηπιαγωγείο (public Kindergarten)
Preschool education in Greece is institutionalized since the 19th century. The structure and operation of the Greek kindergarten (Νηπιαγωγείο)24 is a part of the Primary Education and it was defined in 1985 with the framework Law of 1566/198525. For the purpose of this study, the term kindergarten will be used when it is referred to the Greek public Νεπηαγσγείν (kindergarten). In the public Greek kindergarten can be employed kindergarten teachers with full time of 4 years university education or graduates from the former Pedagogical Academy. The Pedagogical Academy26 studies were 2 years but in 1984 the education of kindergarten teachers27 was reformed on the University level. The graduates of the former Pedagogical Academies had the opportunity28 until the late years to attend a two years program at the Greek Universities (Departments of Preschool Education) in order to equalize their pedagogical diplomas with the University degrees.
The public Greek kindergarten29 has two different options for attendance of the children: the first called classic kindergarten which is opened from 08.00 am until 12.30 pm and the second called all day kindergarten30, which is opened from 08.00 am until 16.00 pm. All day kindergarten was initially designed to meet the needs of the families that both of the parents were working in full time jobs, but nowadays it is available to every family, regardless of their working status. A classic kindergarten class has one kindergarten teacher responsible for a group of maximum 25 children, although it is possible to have 28 children, especially in kindergartens which belong in communities with high population. This number refers for both the classic kindergarten and the all day kindergarten. In some cases, a classic kindergarten class
24The Greek Νεπηαγσγείν (Nipiagogeio) is under the authority of the Ministry of Education Life Long Learning and Religious Affairs, while the Child and Infant Centers belong to municipalities. Child and Infant Centers accept attendance of children between 6 months and 4 years, http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/eurybase_full_reports/EL_EN.pdf
25http://www.pi-schools.gr/preschool_education/nomothesia/1566_85.pdf
26 The last graduates leaved the Pedagogical Academies in 1988.
27In Greek is νηπιαγωγός
28Presidential Decree130/1990, http://www.et.gr/
29Φ.32/190/81670/Γ1, http://www.et.gr/
30The first all day kindergartens operated in the school year 1997/1998 (Law 2525/1997), (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/eurybase_full_reports/EL_EN.pdf).
27 cooperates with a reception class which is responsible for children with special educational needs. Reception classes are staffed with kindergarten teachers who are qualified in special educational needs. Each class of all day kindergarten is staffed with 2 kindergarten teachers who are attending an alternating working schedule of a morning or an afternoon shift. More specifically, the morning shift is between 08.00 am until 12.00 pm and the afternoon shift is from 11.45 am until 16.00 pm. The time between 11.45 am and 12.00 pm is available for the 2 kindergarten teachers to discuss the curriculum and cooperate at all levels. Additionally, there is the option of early time entry which is called morning optional zone31 for the all day kindergartens, where they can be opened from 07.00 am; however, the attendance of at least 5 children in the age of 5 is demanded as a precondition for the morning optional zone to operate. Both kindergarten teachers are cooperating in order to follow a common curriculum which is structured according to the national curriculum for kindergarten education.
At Greek kindergarten they can attend those children who have filled their 4th and 5th year of age at 31st December of the registration year32. Moreover, since the school year 2007-2008, according to the article 73 of the Greek law 3518/200633, the attendance at the Greek kindergarten of children who are filling their 5th year at 31st December of the registration year is compulsory. Additionally, in Greece, apart from the public kindergartens which are addressing to specific ages of children (between four and six years old), municipality and private kindergartens are also available. At the municipality kindergartens they can attend children from the age of one until five years old, whereas in some private kindergartens small children below the age of one year old can also be accepted.
The Greek Kindergarten Teacher‟s Guide34 which was published in 2007 and it is in function since then, refers to fields of the curriculum for the kindergarten and adopts the interdisciplinary approach of knowledge; the methods which are suggested in the curriculum are enhancing collaborative, discovering and holistic learning. Moreover,
31Φ.32/190/81670/Γ1/20-7-2007, Decree ΦΔΚ 1420/8-8-2007 η. Β΄, http://www.et.gr/
32 Ν.2327/95, ΦΔΚ 56 Α΄, http://www.et.gr/
33 Ν. 3518/06, ΦΔΚ 272/06 η. Α΄, http://www.et.gr/
34Dafermou et al. 2007
28 it is supported the gradual socialization of children in a physical, emotional, mental and social frame.
1.6 Earlier research
Several studies have focused on museum‟s learning perspectives for children of different ages. In addition, many researchers have investigated teachers‟ perceptions regarding their museum uses, their views about learning in the museum and its connection with the specific fields of the school curriculum (mostly in school ages).
In the late decades many studies (Harris Qualitative 1997; Piscitelli & Anderson 2000) have been conducted to determine how young children perceive and reinforce museum experiences.
A report from the European Commission (2009) about art and cultural education at schools in Europe refers to projects being held in Norway35 and in Greece36 (among several other European countries) which aimed at the development of cultural and art education in relation to their countries curriculum.
A survey among 200 Greek kindergarten teachers in 2004 (Zografou-Tsantaki 2004) about their views regarding the exploitation of museum in preschool education indicated that almost half of the participants approached museum mostly by visits.
Moreover, the research revealed that kindergarten teachers in Greece “emit a satisfactory positive atmosphere for the museum and its exhibits” (Zografou-Tsantaki 2004:7). In particular, Greek kindergarten teachers believed that both the objectives of the curriculum and the response to the contact between the museum and the school audience are some of the reasons for museum visitations with their kindergarten children.
35Norway has integrated a school program called Cultural Rucksack since 2008, according to which, an art related educational project emphasizes on the collaboration between schools and various art−forms in local settings.
36The program „Melina :education and culture in primary schools‟ was carried out during the period 1994-2004, aiming on the use of teaching methods which encourage the content of art curricula including theatre, visual arts, contemporary dance, music, photography and literature. This program helped, in a satisfactory extent, the connection between museum and school. In the specific program participated also many public kindergartens (European Commission 2009).
29 Furthermore, in the study conducted by Griffin and Symington (1997) about field trip learning, it was revealed that half of the interviewed teachers connected the trips with the school curriculum. In particular, other surveys (Kisiel 2003; Tal et al. 2005) indicated clearly that teachers considered museums as important learning settings and they tried to create learning experiences for their students during museum visits;
nevertheless, the perspectives of these experiences depended also on the teacher‟s personal meanings regarding learning in informal settings.
Furthermore, another research by Anderson and Zhang (2003) in Vancouver, Canada among teachers of the 7th grade, cited evidence that some of the issues which teachers considered while making visiting plans at museums were: curriculum fit, perceived value of experience, entry costs, amount of enjoyment and, transportation cost.
According to Mackety (2003), who made a survey among 130 elementary school teachers, cost and transportation were the factors which influenced their visiting decisions. Furthermore, the specific survey illustrated that teachers prefer to combine more their museum visit with some specific subjects of the curriculum themes and topics like Technology, Earth and Space Science, Life Science, Social Science.
Finally, teachers categorized the students‟ museum experiences concerning their perspectives as: equally fun and educational, apply on the everyday life learning, vary in learning styles, integrate hands-on activities, and apply on critical thinking skills.
In particular, a study made by the University of Leicester37 in England (2006) revealed that some of teacher‟s expectations about learning outcomes for children from museum uses were: increase or change in knowledge and understanding (95 %), enjoyment, inspiration and creativity (94 %), change or development in attitudes and values (92 %), increase in skills (89 %) and action, behaviour and progression (81 %) on a „very important‟ or „important‟ extent. In addition, Hooper-Greenhill38 has
37 For similar research see, Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (2006),
http://www.le.ac.uk/ms/research/Reports/What%20amazed%20me%20most%20at%20the%20museum
%20today.pdf,
http://www.le.ac.uk/ms/research/Reports/The%20most%20interesting%20thing%20at%20the%20muse um%20today%20was.pdf.
38Hooper-Greenhill‟s research was based on piloted programs throughout United Kingdom, like Inspiring for All and Renaissance in the Regions, and was funded by the British Government (Hooper- Greenhill 2007).
30 investigated the educational role of the museum and has emphasized on a constructivist theory of learning inside the museum and its hermeneutic perspectives (Hooper-Greenhill 1994, 2007; Insulander 2005). According to the research, teachers link museum visits mostly with the subject of History from their National Curriculum (51 %), while Science and Technology is at the second place (26 %) and Art at the third (18 %). In general, the results from these pilot surveys revealed a positive approach and enthusiasm for museums of the participating teachers (Hooper-Greenhill 2007).
In Norway, many reports39 about children‟s meanings regarding museums (Frøyland
& Håberg 2007; Frøyland, Håberg & Brekke 2008) report that children from elementary and high schools had raised their interest about what to expect from their museum visits concerning their acquired knowledge and experiences. Moreover, it should be noticed that in 2006 more than 900 000 Norwegian students attended educational programs in museums (Frøyland & Langholm 2009). Also, projects like Prosjekt L97 og Museene40 in primary schools in different areas of Norway revealed that there was a potential cooperation between school and museums and in relation to their school curriculum.
The learning impacts of museum experience on young children (between 4 and 7 years old) were investigated by several studies (Kopran et al. 1997; Anderson et al.
2002; Tenenbaum et al. 2004). Concerning the effectiveness of a combined museum and classroom project on science, it was indicated that children were supported on their science literacy after participated on an integrated program and acquired new skills in regards to their enjoyment and perception of cultural meanings.
Moreover, Piscitelli and Anderson (2000) studied young children‟s learning perspectives in museum settings. According to this study, which concerned preschool and lower primary children‟s visits at different museum settings, the outcomes of
39The reports are parts of research made by students in Museum‟s Communication Studies in Oslo University College.
40„Prosjekt L97 og museene‟ took place during the period 1998-1999 and it was investigated how knowledge and competence in museums can be connected to the school curriculum, according to children‟s age (Austbø 2000).
31 these experiences were positive and related to both enjoyment and learning opportunities.
Finally, Andrea Weltzl-Fairchild (1995 cited in Hooper-Greenhill 1995) and Insulander (2005) cited evidence about school children‟s response to aesthetic experiences in art museums and came to the conclusion that aesthetic experiences increase with the age and the level of development. They also highlighted the role of the museum educator in children‟s positive response to the aesthetic experiences.
1.7 The use of terms in the current research
For the purposes of the current research and taking in consideration the differentiation of the term Barnehage and Νηπιαγωγείο, the term kindergarten will be used to determine both the Norwegian and Greek kindergarten/preschool education setting according to the clarification illustrated previously (see Chapter 1.5.1 and 1.5.2).
Moreover, the same is done to determine kindergarten teachers from Norway (førskolelærer) and Greece (νηπιαγωγός). The term kindergarten teacher is used during this study to represent both educated Norwegian (førskolelærer) and Greek (λεπηαγσγόο) teachers working in kindergartens in Norway and Greece (according to the explanations given in Chapters 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 previously). More specifically, the kindergarten teacher will be addresses as she, as the majority of kindergarten teachers are women and for facilitation of the study; additionally, the child will be addressed as he. Also, the term Greek curriculum for the kindergarten refers to the Kindergarten Teacher‟s Guide (Dafermou et al. 2007) and the term Norwegian curriculum for the kindergarten addresses to the Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of kindergartens (Rammeplan 2006).
Especially, for this research, the term museum41 is used as a collective term for museums, science centers, aquaria and other similar informal educational settings in
41 According to ICOM , as museums are qualify the following:
i. natural, archaeological and ethnographic monuments and sites and historical monuments and sites of a museum nature that acquire, conserve and communicate material evidence of people and their environment;
ii. institutions holding collections of and displaying live specimens of plants and animals, such as botanical and zoological gardens, aquaria and vivaria;
iii. science centres and planetaria;
32 both countries and the term of museum education refers to learning perspectives inside the museum, according to the definitions given previously (see Chapter 1.2.1);
finally, the term educator refers to the responsible person of the design and implementation of the educational program in a museum and will be addressed as he.
Lastly, the age of the kindergarten children which will study will address to is the age between three and six years old, taken into consideration the Norwegian and Greek kindergarten operation system (see pp.24-28 in this Chapter).
1.2.8 The purpose of the study
The author of this study was interested in examining Greek and Norwegian kindergarten teachers‟ concepts regarding the role of the museum as a learning arena for the kindergarten. More specifically, her interest was focused on any possible similarity or differentiation of the concepts between the kindergarten teachers of these two countries.
Additionally, one of the main purposes of the present study is to investigate kindergarten teachers‟ concepts about the connection between the museum and the kindergarten curriculum and the actual policy in practice related to museum uses within the national curricula; moreover, this study is interested on kindergarten teachers‟ attitudes towards the educational possibilities in the frame of a museum visit and the perspectives which characterize its connection with the kindergarten.
iv. non-profit art exhibition galleries;
v. nature reserves, conservation institutes and exhibitions galleries permanently maintained by libraries and archives centres; natural parks;
vi. international and national regional or local museum as per the definition given under this article;
vii. non-profit institutions or organizations undertaking conservation research, education, training, documentation and other activities relating to museum and Museology;
viii. cultural centres and other entities that facilitate the preservation, continuation and management of tangible or intangible heritage resources (living heritage and digital creative activity);
ix. such other institutions as the Executive Council, after seeking the advice of the Advisory Committee, considers as having some or all of the characteristics of a museum, or as supporting museums and professional museum personnel through museological research, education or training, http://archives.icom.museum/hist_def_eng.html.
33 Especially, it will be investigated the effect of former training or acquired previously knowledge related to museum education on enhancing educational programs connected with the kindergarten curriculum and whether there is any difference or similarity between the two groups. Moreover, it will be examined the connection of those programs/projects with the fields of the Norwegian and Greek National Curriculum for kindergarten. Furthermore, there will be investigated the reasons why the kindergarten teachers do not visit museums frequently or not attend educational programs in museums along with their pupils and whether there is any differentiation in the reasons between the two countries. An examination of the kindergarten teachers‟ awareness regarding the offered programs from the museums of their local society will be additionally examined.
Consequently, this study will address the following research questions:
1) What sort of conceptions relating to museum education do kindergarten teachers in Norway and in Greece construct?
2) In what degree does museum education contribute to the aims of the National Curriculum for kindergarten in Norway and in Greece?
3) Is there a differentiation of conceptions about museum education between those teachers in Norway and in Greece who have carried out projects inside the museum and those who have not?
4) Is there any relation between kindergarten teachers‟ acquired knowledge related to museum education, museum uses and teachers designing and carrying out programs for their kindergarten children inside the museum?
Finally, this study will provide examples of two museum educational programs, one carried out in a museum in Oslo, Norway and one carried out in Athens, Greece;
additionally, an example of an organized museum visit of a kindergarten group in Tromsø, Norway will be displayed, in order to examine how a kindergarten teacher is using the museum in practice for the purposes of the kindergarten‟s curriculum. These programs will not be evaluated, but it will be examined their possible relation to the theoretical perspectives of learning in the museum.
