France’s territorial integrity is not considered to be challenged by Chadian actors, nor is the French military forces stationed there viewed as assuring it. However, as outlined by Holsti, a state’s security exceeds the aspect of territorial integrity. In the following part, I will discuss to what extent French military presence in Chad can be perceived as protecting other elements related to a state’s security. The actual military presence takes the form of an involvement that has been running since 1986, with Operation Sparrowhawk. At the beginning, its objective was to assure the territorial integrity of Chad, exposed to a risk of Libyan invasion. The operation has been maintained despite the disappearance of the Libyan threat. It counts approximately 950 French militaries, including a ground force and an aerial force (Ministry of Defence 2010a). The actual mission of the operation is, according to the French Ministry of Defence, two-folded. First, French forces are intended to “assure the protection of French interests, especially the security of French citizens living in Chad”36
5.1.1 The significance of a military presence at the center of Africa
(Ministry of Defence 2010a). Second, they “provide a logistic support (supplies, fuel, transport and training) to the Chadian Armed Forces and Security Forces as well as an intelligence aid” (Ministry of Defence 2010a).
Chad as a springboard to address French concerns in Africa
The main reason for the French colonisation of the territory which became Chad was its position in Africa; it linked together the colonised territories Algeria, French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. During the colonial period, the control over the Chadian territory therefore contributed to maintain the territorial integrity of the French colonies (Politique
36 The quotations from the Ministry of Defence’s homepage are my translations.
34
Africaine 1984:9). The military engagement was maintained after Chad became independent due to the perception of the continued importance of the territory by French officials. First, Chad was still a springboard to defend French interests in other former colonies. This role also persisted after the end of the Cold War. Chad’s location in the centre of Africa enabled French forces stationed there to intervene in other former colonies, and thereby protect political and economic interests as well as French nationals in these states in case of unrest (Azevedo 1998:141, Nako 2010 [interview]). Second, France was tied to several of its former colonies through defence agreements where France committed itself to assure these states’
defence.37 To maintain Chad stable, it was also important to avoid the spread of unrest to neighbouring countries that could lead to requests about French interventions. According to Roland Marchal, the closure of the French military base in the Central African Republic has increased the importance of the forces in Chad even further due to the reduced French military presence in the region (Marchal 2007:187). In addition, the presence in Chad has got a new significance during the latter years due to the augmentation in the number of terrorist activities in the Sahelian belt. According to the White Paper from 2008, Defence and National Security, maintaining a “capacity of prevention and action”38
Protection of French citizens
in the Sahel is an element in the French defence strategy (Le livre blanc 2008:315). Potential development of terrorism in Sahel constitutes a threat against French interests in the region, but also the French territory since terrorist attacks could be targeting France itself. Thus, a military presence has remained of strategic value to France in the post-colonisation period due to Chad’s location.
The protection of French nationals is one of the elements included in Holsti’s definition of a state’s security and also one of the Operation’s declared missions. It is therefore considered to be important when outlining French military policy. In 2009, 1345 French citizens were registered as living in Chad at the French consulate (Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs 2010). If the rest of the citizens from Western countries who live in Chad is included, the number increases to approximately 5000 (Nako 2010 [interview]). French forces in Chad also enable France to intervene to protecting French citizens in other states in the Central African region, like Cameroon, Congo and the Central African Republic (Nako 2010
37 In 2008, France had defence agreements with the following Central African countries; Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Gabon. Niger and Congo have renounced to previous defence agreements (Le livre blanc 2008:167).
38 My translation
35 [interview]). However, as pointed out by the politician Gali Ngothé Gatta, the evacuation of the foreigners present in Chad demands only two Transall39
5.1.2 The value of the Operation for the French defense in general terms
, the rest of the military presence must therefore be explained by other purposes (Ngothé Gatta 2010 [interview]).
Training possibilities
Chad is not only of strategic value to France due to its geographical location, but also because of the training possibilities offered by its size coupled with the limited population; large desert areas are used to train French military forces. Chad therefore offers important opportunities for French soldiers to acquire valuable experiences not available on the French territory (Kebzabo 2010 [interview], Didame 2010 [interview]). The training possibilities in Chad are not only important for the military operation inside Chad but also elsewhere; French soldiers were trained in Chad before they were sent to Afghanistan (Ngothé Gatta 2010 [interview]).
Hence, military presence can be considered to strengthen French defence in a general way and thereby improve its capacity to protect French interests elsewhere. Furthermore, the territory’s value as an exercising field is further increased by the limited number of restrictions imposed on the French forces by the Chadian president, and the exemption for French military forces to pay taxes for a large part of their activities (ICG 2006:18). Another advantage with the military presence in Chad is its flexibility due to the lack of a legal binding agreement regulating its presence. The forces stationed in Chad in the framework of the Operation Sparrowhawk are free to leave when it is considered in France’s interest for them to do so, and they can also choose the amount of support they provide to the Chadian regime (Ngothé Gatta 2010 [interview], Rolley 2010:72). Therefore, the military presence in Chad offers training possibilities for the French military without imposing extensive conditions in return.
The lobbying of the French military in favour of a continued presence
As mentioned before, the military dimension has been dominating in the Franco-Chadian relationship and the French military has therefore played an important role in outlining the French military policy. Hence, in accordance with Morgenthau’s claim that political tradition
39 A military transport aircraft.
36
shapes what is considered as in a state’s interest, the French army’s opinion is still expected to have an influence on shaping the French official view of the Operation. In general, the French army has underlined and promoted the importance of the military presence due to ties between the French and the Chadian army as well as financial advantages attached to it. First of all, the two armies are perceived as linked through the Second World War: Chad was the first of the French overseas territories40 that allied with the Free French Forces41.42 French troops were constituted in Chad and Chadian and French forces fought together; this is considered as the origin of the cooperation between the two armies (Malafosse 2008:21). In the words of Ngothé Gatta, “Chad was one of the origins of the revival of France during the Second World War”43
5.1.3 The importance of the strategic interests
(Ngothé Gatta 2010 [interview]). The relationship between the two armies was further strengthened through the training of important parts of today’s French military elite; several of them took part in the interventions in Chad in the latter part of the 1960s to support the regime of Tombalbaye. Furthermore, Déby forged ties with several of the actual French military officials during his military studies in France (ICG 2006:17). Apart from the emotional links existing between the two armies, the French army also favours the continuation of the Operation because of its definition as an external operation and not a permanent base. The military presence is then financed by the Ministry of Economy, Finance and Industry and not the Ministry of Defence; it enables the French military to assure continued training as well as salaries to the military personnel stationed in Chad without being responsible for its costs (ICG 2006:18). Hence, the French military can be considered as having self-interest in the continuation of the operation and is therefore likely to enhance its importance.
All Chadian informants presented geostrategic importance of the French military presence as the main reason behind its continuity. Its significance has augmented even further in the latter years due to reduced military presence in the region and an increased number of terrorist activities in Sahel. As a consequence, French military presence in Chad is a potential tool to defend French interests in Chad and in the Central African region, especially the protection of
40Territoires d’outre-mer
41Forces Françaises Libres
42 The Free French Forces were French military forces led by General De Gaulle who continued to fight Germany and its allies after the official government of France had surrendered.
43 All the interviews with Chadian informants were conducted in French. Hence, all the quotations from those interviews are my translations.
37 French citizens as well as to counter a more specific danger like Sahelian terrorism.
Furthermore, Operation Sparrowhawk also constitutes an important element in the training of the French army. Hence, the French forces can both protect specific interests in the area as well as improve the French defence in general through its presence in Chad. Consequently, French military presence in Chad is considered to improve France’s security.