My field work was at the time of constitutional election in Nepal due to which it was a little bit difficult to gather members of water user committee (WUC) in each benefited ward. So only one focus group discussion was held with 10 members of WUC on each site. As women were mainly involved in fetching water supply, we included more women for the discussion. The chairperson was responsible for organizing of the FGD. During the FGD, the information was recorded and later interpreted. Main topics raised and questions asked for the FGD was made.
Questions selected for the FGD are to be found in annex 2.
30 3.8 Observation
An observation walk to the source was carried with the project manager of Dhulikhel Drinking water supply project, office staff of bhakundebesi water supply system and with chairman of Panchadhara water supply system to observe and gather technical information.
The information from household survey, focus group discussion, an informal interview with key informant and observation were utilized to evaluate the status of water supply system managed by water user committee, technical and financial viability and institutional arrangements of the water supply system.
3.9 Data Analysis
The qualitative data obtained from the household interviews was coded in excel sheet for the analyzing and interpretation. The qualitative data from personal opinion, literatures, results of key informant’s information, conclusion drawn from focus group discussion were used as a basis for its analysis and interpretation.
3.10 Water Quality Sampling
For Dhulikhel and Bhakundebesi water supply system, water samples were collected from four sampling points namely from at the source, after the treatment, in the distribution system and at the consumer point. In case of Panchdhara, water samples were collected from at the source, at the distribution and at the consumer point. Samples were also collected on the sterilized bottles provided by the laboratory. Two samples were taken from each point for the replication of samples. The samples were taken in the morning hours for analysis. Samples were analyzed for bacterial contamination (total coliform and E. coli) and physiochemical parameter (temperature, PH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, total hardness, fluoride, ammonia, nitrate, iron and manganese) in the Environment and public health organization (ENPHO) laboratory in Kathmandu. The analysis was carried out using Standard Method of Analysis (APHA, 2012).
The microbiological analysis was carried through the membrane filtration method (APHA, 2012). The detail methods of analysis for other parameters are given below.
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Table 6: Methods for Water Quality Analysis (APHA, 2012).
Parameters Test methods
Temperature Thermometer
PH Electrometric Method
Electrical Conductivity Conductivity Meter
Turbidity Nephelometric Method
Total hardness as CaCO3 EDTA Titrimetric Method
Fluoride SPADNS Method
Ammonia Phenate Method
Nitrate UV Spectrophotometric Screening Method
Iron (Fe) Direct Air- Acetylene Flame Method (AAS)
Manganese (Mn) Direct Air- Acetylene Flame Method (AAS)
Data were analyzed by using statistical method using analysis of variance (ANOVA). This analysis was done to complete the differences between different points with each water quality parameter. ANOVA analyses were done utilizing the Microsoft excel data analysis tool pack.
The ANOVA analysis was based upon a 95% confidence level or P- value of 0.05
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Chapter (IV) Result and Discussion
4.1 Rural Water Supply System and Sanitation in NepalIn Nepal, people traditionally considered flowing water to be pure and safe. However, modern systematic and planned development of public water supply and sanitation only started with the first five year plan 1956- 1961. Since then, it has always been a state’s one of the most priority.
In recent years, different NGOs, INGOs and private sector also supported drinking water and sanitation programmes in Nepal.
The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) was established in 1972 and has become a main agency for the water supply and sanitation sector. The aim of DWSS is to provide to access to safe water supply and sanitation to all by 2017.
Along with DWSS different organizations/ institutions are involved in providing drinking water and sanitation services and facilities to the rural people. like United Nations Children’s Funds (UNICEF), United Mission to Nepal (UMN), Red Cross Society, Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (RWSSP), Water Aid, World Bank, Asian Development Bank (RWSS,FUND).
Various agencies have surveyed on water supply and sanitation over the year 1991 (Table7). The latest figure documented by NPC/ UNCT, 2010, Nepal has already achieved its MDG target for water supply, with current national coverage of 80% against a target of 73% by 2015. In sanitation sector, the MDG target is not achieved yet, the coverage of sanitation is of 43%
against a target of 53% by 2015.
33 Table7: Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage
Survey and year Water Supply (percent) Sanitation(percent)
Urban Rural Urban Rural
piped Other Total Piped Other Total Total Total
NFHS 1991 51.3 43.6 94.9 16.3 50.4 66.7 65.8 12.0
NDHS 1996 57.4 32.6 90.0 29.1 47.0 76.1 71.3 13.4
BCHIMES 2000 61.9 36.7 98.6 46.3 47.1 93.4 66.5 22.6
Census 2001 66.1 31.0 97.1 51.1 37.6 88.7 72.3 33.6
NDHS 2001 55.2 40.4 95.6 33.0 49.0 82.0 76.6 19.4
NLSS 2004 67.6 25.4 93.0 39.2 39.8 79.0 79.5 25.3
NDHS 2006 50.5 39.5 90.0 38.9 41.1 80.0 77.0 29.4
Source: NMIP/DWSS 2010
Notes: NFHS = Nepal Family Health Survey; NDHS = Nepal Demographic and Health Survey;
BCHIMES = Between Census Household Information, Monitoring and Evaluation System;
NLSS = Nepal Living Standards Survey.
In Nepal, rural water supply systems are partially or fully funded from governmental and non- governmental organizations. Many governmental organizations (GOs), non- governmental organizations (NGOs) and international non- governmental organizations (INGOs) are working to coverage and to provide safe water supplies and sanitation to poor populations in remote areas.
The consumption of water in rural communities is quite different in Nepal than other countries.
Normally people do not have to pay for water from public taps that are located among 5-15 houses within a 500 meter distances (Asthana, 1997). However, other countries and agencies such as the World Bank recommend that users should pay for services (Asthana, 1997). To escape problems created by this approach, Singh et al., 1993, stated on their report that the donor and governmental organization in developing countries should focused on financial issues, especially the generation of revenue through domestic connection.
In Nepal, most drinking water supply schemes appears unsuccessful due to lack of involvement of women during planning stages, supporting mechanism for the handover of DWSS,
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governmental supervision and coordination between local water user committee, local government and district water supply authorities ( Sharma, 1998; Bhandari et al, 2005).
According to the government policy of Nepal, operation and maintenance costs of drinking water supply projects should be financed by the community itself while the investment cost is covered by the donor agencies or the government (NPC, 1998). Community may also contribute to project investment by providing labor, land and local materials. A sustainable water future depends on appropriate prices and the necessary resources need to come from project consumers (World Bank water Demand Research Team, 1993; Whittington, 1998). In developing countries, the major causes of water supply system failure are shoddy construction of drinking water supply system lacks for operation and maintenance, excessive administrative centralization and widespread corruption in supporting organizations (Howe and Dixon, 1993, Singh et al., 1993).
4.2 Institution involvement and financial overview
Government of Nepal, Department of water supply and sewerage (DWSS), and water users’
committee are the stakeholders of the three studied sites. German government had invested to Dhulikhel drinking water supply project through German development Agency (GTZ), and Urban Development through local Efforts (UDLE) ( see table 8 ). An agreement was signed between Government of Nepal, German Government and Dhulikhel Drinking Water User Committee before the initiation of the project work.
General assembly, water users’ committee, VDC, municipality and management unit are the main institution after the handover of the projects. DWSS is a large support system the management of water supply system as it is umbrella organization mandated by Ministry of Housing and Physical planning to operate as a facilitator to implement water supply project through District water supply offices (DWSO). At local level, VDC and municipality play as increasing role in evolving and implementing water strategies and WUC are responsible in maintaining the water services. After the projects were handed to the water user committees, the committee has been fully responsible on its total management of the project which includes production and distribution of water, day to day maintenance of the system, financial, administrative as well as consumer relations.
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In dhulikhel water supply system, technical and management unit have 17 paid staff while Bhakundebesi have only 2 paid staff and that of Panchdhara have 10 paid staff to take care of day to day operation and maintenance of the system.
Community participation in the different phase of the project is very important because it builds a sense of ownership and commitment among the local people (IRC, 2003). In all of the studied area, people were actively participated in the different phase of the project such as planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. Some of the community members have been very actively contributing to make this project successful right from the very beginning. They have been considered as the founding members of the user committee.
When the Dhulikhel project began, a water users committee of 11 members’ was formed from the various sectors of the community. Later user's committee comprises 21 people chairman 1, vice chairman 2, secretary 1, treasurer 1, 5 female members and 9 ward wise members. While in the Bhakundebesi and Panchdhara Water users committees have 11 members among them 2 are female from the beneficiaries’ community. According to the drinking water regulations of 1998, water users’ committee should have two women representatives among the total of nine members. Besides that, women can compete with men for other position. So as the water users committee also follows the regulation and the current committee has two female members and their role is effective. Nine members of water users’ committee was formed from the water users group.
Local people are the initiator of this project and have been very actively contributing to make successful right from the very beginning. They have been considered as the founding members of the user committee. According to the Drinking Water Regulation 1998 (2055 BS), water users have certain responsibility in the water supply like have to maintain quality standards, repair and maintenance of the water supply system and have power to impose a service charge.
36 Table8: Institution Involvement and Financial Overview
Heads Dhulikhel Bhakundebesi Panchdhara
Institution involved GON, DWSS, GTZ and UDLE, WUC
The total cost of the Dhulikhel water supply project was NRs 37,660,195 of which 94.8% of the total cost was covered by German Government/ GTZ and rest of the cost was covered by Government of Nepal. While the total cost of the Bhakundebesi water supply was NRs 30,000,000 of which 85.33% of the total cost was covered by Government of Nepal and rest of the cost was covered by DWSS and that of Panchdhara water supply project was NRs 11,653,442 of which 80% of the total cost was covered by Government of Nepal (DWSS) and 20% covered by the community. Before the committee raised certain amount from the community as an operation and maintenance (O and M). In order to collect the fund, committees have charged a connection fee of NRs 6600 with an applicant in Dhulikhel water supply system, NRs 25,000 in Bhakundebesi water supply system to all consumers. But the case is different in Panchdhara, committee has charged a connection fee of NRs 5000 with old inhabitants, NRs 13,000 from those helped in project and NRs 25,000 for new migrates. As the connection rate is different for consumers, most of the new migrates expressed that this is discrimination between old and new people. Similarly, the some of the respondents from Bhakundebesi also expressed that the connection rate is high and most of the female respondent expressed that “though the rate is high we get water at our home and save time that we spend fetching water”.
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From the source provided from the WUCs, the main income source for the committees are water tariff, connection charge meter charge, interest from bank deposits and fine/penalty. In Dhulikhel water supply system, water tariff is the dominant income source covering around 91 % of revenue during the period 2004/05- 2006/07 and 87.13% during the period of 2011/12 (Annex 3). And second main source of income is the interest from bank deposit. The estimated total cost of the committee is NRs 1, 89, 27,536. The amount of income of the committee has increased from 4.0 million in 2004/05 to 18.9 million in 2012/13. There is consistent increase in the revenue from water tariff from 2004 to 2007. But the revenue from water tariff is decreased over the period 2012/13 and consistent increase in interest from bank deposit.
The total expenditure is increasing over the year. Out of the total cost 8.1 million in the year 2011/12, the expenditure in salary is sharing highest 45.09% followed by donation 30.31%. A comparison of the income and expenditure of the system shows that Dhulikhel Drinking Water System is operating surplus. Thus the total income balance and expenditure of the committee of the fiscal year 2011/12 was NRs 1, 27, 86,722.57 and 81, 58,824.89. The committee has fully recovered operation and maintenance cost from its own cost. The committee has successful to balance NRs 46, 27,897.68 at the end of the year 2011/12.
Similarly, Bhakundebesi water users committee have also water tariff as a dominant source of income covering around 49.61% of revenue during the period 2007/08 and 56.9 % during the period of 2008/09 but it is decreased in 2011/12. The second main source of income is the interest from bank deposit (Annex 4).The total internal income cost of the committee is NRs 56, 06,200.
The expenditure of the committee was increasing on operation and maintenance because of the rising price of the materials in the markets. A comparison of the income and expenditure of the committee shows that the system is operating surplus. The total income and expenditure of the committee was found to be NRs 56, 06,200 and NRs 20, 51,000 respectively in the fiscal year 2011/12 and committee successfully balances NRs 35, 55,200. While in Panchdhara , installation charge with user contribution was found to be the main income source of the committee covering the 63.57 % of revenue during the period 2010/11 and 50.97% during the period 2008/09 followed by water tariff. The committee has estimated the total income cost as NRs 58, 86,527
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and total estimated expenditure cost as NRs 21, 27,800 (Annex5). The total expenditure is increasing over the year. But it was decreased during the period 2009/10. Out of the total expenditure cost over the year, the expenditure in salary is sharing highest which is followed by operation and maintenance head.
4.2.1Water tariff
The water tariff rates set by three WUCs are given in the table 8. The lifeline monthly rate for 10 cubic liters of water is NRs 125 in Dhulikhe while with the same liter of water Bhakundebesi WUC set minimum rate of NRs 200. And Panchdara WUC set the minimum rate of NRs150 for 15,000 liters of water. From the household survey, it was found that 93% , 77% and 82% of respondents are paying minimum rate of NRs 125 water bill and rest are paying in between NRs 125 to NRs 300 per month. The right to increase water tariff lies with the general assembly which hold once a year. In order to increase the water tariff, users’ committee has to propose to general assembly mentioning the clear reasons. It had been proposed to increase the water tariff by 10 percent at an interval of two years to meet the increasing operation and maintenance cost.
Table 9: Rate of water tariff users’ committee are responsible for collection of revenue.
Water tariff is progressive. The timely paying consumer receives rebate of NRs 10. According to provision, the consumer should pay water tariff within 60 day from the first day of month. Those who pays within 45 days they can get rebate/discount of NRs 10. Consumer failing to pay within this period has charge which range from 5% to 48 %. If the consumer unable to pay the bill
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within the time limit then, the management of users' committee can disconnect the water tap of the defaulter at any time giving notice or without notice. After disconnection the costumer can connect the tap paying all dues including fine as per the rule of the user committee.
From the survey, all of the respondents from three sites reported that they are willing to pay for water they use because the project brought water to their own house. The committee has not face much problem in collecting the water tariff.
All the respondents from the studied areas reported that they are willing to pay for water they use. Only 7% of the respondents from the Bhakundebesi felt that the tariff was high. While in the Dhulikhel and Panchdhara, all the respondents interviewed were content about the charge and they were found satisfied to the water charge.
As mentioned above a comparison of income and expenditure of the all studied sites show that the system is operating surplus. The surplus of the system indicates the healthy situation to operate viably. The availability of money enables committee to operate system effectively. This is a fundamental basis for the sustainability of the project. The collection of sufficient fund for operation and maintenance was possible because the users’ were satisfied to the quality of services that they are achieving. Bhandari and Grant (2007) reported in their paper that level of users’ satisfaction has a major influence on the willingness to pay for water.
Among three water supply system, Dhulikhel water supply system is old and advanced system constantly operating since the last 24 years. Bhakundebesi and Panchdhara are operating since last 7 years. Brikkr (2002), a water supply system is sustainable if its operation, maintenance and administrative cost are recovered at local level and can be operated and maintained at local level with limited but need feasible external support and also provide quality of water. These three schemes able to recovered operation and maintenance cost at their own resources and DWSS is also support in case of major operation and maintenance and also able to provide a good quality of water to the consumer. As Barnes and Ashbolt (2010) concluded that when local communities participate directly in the planning their own water supply system, these systems are more likely to be sustainable, in all 2 schemes, local people participate in different phase of the project.
These systems are likely to be sustainable because they have adequate financial and administrative capacity for system operation and maintenance (Montgomery et al. 2009).
40 4.3 Social Characteristics
Respondent’s background affects on water use, demand and collection in the households.
Education, occupation, income and expenditure, household size determines the water use and demand. The average household’s size of respondents is found to be 7, 6.5 and 6 people average monthly income of the family NRs25, 000, NRs 26,000 and NRs 15,000 in Panchdhara, Dhulikhel and Bhakundebesi respectively. Respondents pursued a variety of occupations including government, private sector and agriculture to sustain their livelihood. The main income source of respondents in Panchdhara and Dhulikhel is business covering 58% and 61%
respectively (figure 5). While, in Bhakundebesi, 35% of respondents are depend on agriculture to sustain their livelihood.
Figure 5: Occupation of the Respondents.
Residence has a significant effect on the education and occupation. Dhulikhel and Ichangu is close to urban area and tourist attraction point has better opportunities for education and many professions. From the given figure 6, 48 % respondents from Dhulikhel and Panchdhara have university level of education while, in the Bhakudebesi, 40% of the respondents have secondary level of education.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Dhulikhel Bhakundebesi Panchdhara
41 Figure 6: Level of Education
4.3.1 Use of Water Facility and Purposes
The main use of water in households are drinking, cooking and washing clothes, cleaning including personal hygiene and other activities. The average household use of water in
The main use of water in households are drinking, cooking and washing clothes, cleaning including personal hygiene and other activities. The average household use of water in