important to establish such plans in order to achieve the goal of a sustainable and healthy ecosystem. He also points out the importance of the management plan for the Gulf of Alaska that grew out of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The core for this plan was to keep track of how the marine ecosystem changes over a period of 100 years. Short argues that this plan was not ultimately successful because of political interference, but it did include people as an explicit part of the ecosystem. The plan also got a lot of attention in scientific circles for the cause of its ambitious efforts and the government-funded endowment to support it.
The Inuit peoples notice the climate changes in their way of living. The Inuit peoples see the weather and ice conditions changing. The ocean freezes up much later than normal and the ice are thinner. This is challenging when hunting whales. Changes in migrating patterns are therefore one a great fear for the Inuit people. There are no studies on how seismic exploration affects sea mammals (Koonuk). The sound from the air gun used under seismic shootings travels for miles under water, and the long term affects on this are therefore unsure.
also increases the complexity for the researcher. With this in mind, some of the findings will be presented where as some will be left out. This issue will also not be analysed to the extent what the term means and how it affect the stakeholders. However, since the term is intertwined with the problem statement it will be touched upon without determining the boundaries of “the Arctic”. The oil company representative that was (anonymously) interviewed pointed out that there is no definition of “where the Arctic starts and ends”
when calling for “an ecosystem management in the Arctic” like many did under the Arctic Frontier conference in January 2009. The representative points out that up until now the activities in the Arctic has been looked at separately, where as now they are tried to be seen more combined.
That said, the informants hope this will happen and see many positive sides of implementing an ecosystem management in the Arctic Ocean and within countries because the intentions of implementing a more holistic approach are entirely good and give a better overview than the alternative.
If the human dimension were included, the indigenous people in the research found it very hard to see any negative sides of implementing an ecosystem management in the Arctic.
For ecosystem management to be a reality in the Arctic, the informants see one main
obstacle; how and when will all the nations and stakeholders be able to align and agree upon the same thing? Most participants in the research argued that this will be very difficult and some were very concerned this will take time.
Some of the Norwegian industry informants and the Directorate-General for Environment in the European Commission (Berrozpe, 2009) see the Integrated Management for Barents and the Sea Areas off the coast of Lofoten as a pioneer work towards an ecosystem management approach and that ideas like this can be moved north as the boundaries are moved. If this is the way the Arctic Ocean is going to be governed; many of the informants think this is the right way to govern these vulnerable areas. The indigenous people in Norway agree with this if the human dimension is included (Gintal).
5.4.1 Practical Example of Stakeholders in the Arctic
This is a list made by an oil company that has interests in the Arctic, to identify their stakeholders. It is a proof that the industry is concerned and focus on their stakeholders.
Moreover, it shows the cooperation between the various stakeholders. The order of the stakeholders in this list might be random.
• Central authorities and politicians – Government, Ministries
• Regional and local politicians, authorities and general population – Municipalities, Counties, Boroughs and Regions
• Indigenous Institutions and interest groups
• Organisations / NGOs
– Fisheries, labour unions, employers’ organisations, environmental organisations
• Industry in the area/ potential suppliers
• Media
Another oil company, also wanting to be anonymous, added that in addition to law, regulations and license requirements, the company will draw from its codes of conduct or guidelines when addressing how to implement stakeholder participation. This could be;
– Company’s procedures and guidelines – CSR Program
– Stakeholder Management Plan
5.4.2 The Governmental Positions: US and Norway on LOS /Arctic
According to US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, the LOS governs navigation, fishing, economic development and environmental standards on the open seas. The Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jonas Gahr Støre claims that it also includes ice covered waters. Nevertheless, it is the current regulation for the ocean in the Arctic.
“The formulation, adoption and implementation of international legal rules that are
applicable to all States concerned is very time-consuming and often difficult process. We do not wish to weaken earlier normative achievements, but to strengthen implementation and accountability. In my view, the challenges we are facing may have more to do with lack of
implementation of exciting rules than with an actual lack of rules. There is no lack of rules.
There is a lack of policies.“ Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jonas Gahr Støre (2008).
By this, Minister Støre believes that it take so much more effort for the countries to come together on a new agreement that it might be better using existing rules and regulations as a foundation and rather work on those.