CONCLUSION - The escalating diabetes epidemic: determinants of prevalence disparity between cou

In spite of the study limitations, the estimates reported here show that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus is associated with several factors like health expenditure for DM, life expectancy, TB prevalence, urban population, out-of-pocket expenditure, adults aged ≥ 20 years who are obese, and alcohol consumption among adults ≥ 15 years. The association between DM and these factors vary depending on the different country income groups.

In summary, these results serve as another piece of evidence that the growing burden of diabetes mellitus differs according to country income groups. Therefore, strategies for diabetes prevention should address the different countries based on their income group, in addition to being person-centered approaches. The study findings suggest that attention should be paid to considering the determinants such as health expenditure for DM, urban population, adults aged ≥ 20 years who are obese, and alcohol consumption among adults ≥ 15 years, in further investigations of the etiology of diabetes mellitus among the different country income groups.

Page | 42

REFERENCES

1. Waly MI, Essa MM, Ali A, Al-Shuaibi YM, Al-Farsi YM. The global burden of type 2 diabetes: a review. International Journal of Biological & Medical Research 2010;

1(4):326-9.

2. Dinca-Panaitescu S, Dinca-Panaitescu M, Bryant T, Daiski I, Pilkington B, Raphael D.

Diabetes prevalence and income: results of the Canadian community health survey. Health Policy 2011; 99:116-23.

3. World Health Organization. Health topics: diabetes. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/diabetes_mellitus/en/ Accessed on March 2, 2012.

4. Harris M, Zimmet P. Classification of diabetes mellitus and other categories of glucose intolerance. In: Alberti K, Zimmet P, Defronzo R (eds.) International textbook of diabetes mellitus. 2^nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 1997. p9-23.

5. International Diabetes Federation. What is diabetes? Available at:

http://www.idf.org/diabetesatlas/5e/what-is-diabetes Accessed on March 2, 2012.

6. World Diabetes Foundation. Media Backgrounder: Facts about diabetes, 2011. Available at:

http://www.worlddiabetesfoundation.org/media(10364,1033)/MEDIA_FactsAboutDiabete s__June2011.pdf Accessed on March 2, 2012.

7. World Health Organization. Fact file: 10 facts about diabetes. Available at:

http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/diabetes/facts/en/index4.html Accessed on March 2, 2012.

8. Valdes S, Botas P, Delgado E, Alvarez F, Cadorniga FD. Population-based incidence of type 2 diabetes in northern Spain: the Asturias study. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(9):2258-63.

9. Meisinger C, Thorand B, Schneider A, Stieber J, Doring A, Lowel H. Sex differences in risk factors for incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: the MONICA Augsburg cohort study.

Archives of Internal Medicine 2002; 162(1):82-9.

10. Haffner SM, Miettinen H, Stern MP. Relatively more atherogenic coronary heart disease risk factors in prediabetic women than in prediabetic men. Diabetologia 1997; 40(6):711-7.

11. Bassuk SS, Manson JE. Lifestyle and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes in women: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 2008; 2(3):191-213.

12. Gadsby R. Epidemiology of diabetes Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 2002;

54(9):1165-72.

13. Chan JC, Malik V, Jia W, Kadowaki T, Yajnik CS, Yoon KH, et al. Diabetes in Asia:

epidemiology, risk factors, and pathophysiology. Journal of the American Medical Association 2009; 301:2129-40.

14. Lyssenko V, Jonsson A, Almgren P, Pulizzi N, Isomaa B, Tuomi T, et al. Clinical risk factors, DNA variants, and the development of type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 2008; 359(21):2220-32.

15. Sicree R, Shaw J. Type 2 diabetes: An epidemic or not, and why it is happening. Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research and Reviews 2007; 1(2):75-81.

16. Mbanya JC. From yesterday to tomorrow: Making a difference to global diabetes.

Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2010; 87(1):132-5.

doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2009.12.006.

17. Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2010; 87(1):4-149.

doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007.

Page | 43 18. Whiting DR, Guariguata L, Weil C, Shaw J. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of the

prevalence of diabetes for 2011 and 2030. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2011;

94:311-21. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2011.10.029.

19. Nurminen M. The ecologic method: linkage failures and bias corrections. In: Corvalán C, Nurminen M, Pastides H (eds.) Linkage methods for environment and health analysis.

Technical guidelines. Geneva: WHO Press; 1997. p1-19.

20. Morgenstern H. Ecologic studies in epidemiology: concepts, principles, and methods.

Annual Review of Public Health 1995; 16:61-81.

21. Pearce N. The ecological fallacy strikes back. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 2000; 54:326-7.

22. Susser M. The logic in ecological: I. The logic of analysis. American Journal of Public Health 1994a; 84(5):825-9.

23. Susser M. The logic in ecological: II. The logic of design. American Journal of Public Health 1994b; 84(5):830-5.

24. McMichael AJ. Prisoners of the proximate: loosening the constraints on epidemiology in an age of change. American Journal of Epidemiology 1999; 149:887-97.

25. Durrheim DN, Ogunbanjo GA. Making sense of statistics for family practitioners: what are ecological studies? South African Family Practice 2004; 46(4):48.

26. Susser M. Causal thinking in the health sciences. New York: Oxford University Press;

1973.

27. Chadwick E. Report on the sanitary condition of the laboring population of Great Britain.

London: Edinburgh University Press (originally published 1842); 1965.

28. World Health Organization. Health statistics and health information systems: definition of region groupings. Available at:

http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/definition_regions/en/index.html Accessed on March 19, 2012.

29. World Bank. Data: how we classify countries. Available at:

http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications Accessed on March 19, 2012.

30. Kirigia JM, Sambo HB, Sambo LG, Barry SP. Economic burden of diabetes mellitus in the WHO African region. BMC International Health and Human Rights 2009; 9(6):1-12.

31. World Health Organization. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: report of a WHO/IDF consultation. Geneva: WHO Press; 2006. Available at: http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/WHO_IDF_definition_diagnosis_of_diabetes.pdf Accessed on January 10, 2013.

32. American Diabetes Association. American Diabetes Association recommendations.

Available at:

http://www.amc.edu/pathology_labservices/addenda/addenda_documents/Americandiabet esassociationrecommendations2.pdf Accessed on January 10, 2013.

33. World Health Organization. Use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Geneva: WHO Press; 2011.

34. International Expert Committee. International Expert Committee report on the role of the A1C assay in the diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32:1327–34.

35. Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2010; 87:4-14.

36. Hu FB. Globalization of diabetes: the role of diet, lifestyle, and genes. Diabetes Care 2011; 34:1249-57.

37. King H, Rewers M. Global estimates for prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in adults. Diabetes Care 1993; 16(1):157-77.

38. King H, Aubert R, Herman W. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates and projections. Diabetes Care 1998; 21(9):1414-31.

Page | 44 39. Amos A, McCarty D, Zimmet P. The rising global burden of diabetes and its

complications: estimates and projections to the year 2010. Diabetic Medicine 1997;

14(Suppl. 5):S1-S85.

40. Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care 2004; 27(5):1047-53.

41. Sicree R, Shaw J, Zimmet P. The global burden: diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance.

Diabetes Atlas. 4^th edition. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation; 2006. Available at: http://www.idf.org/sites/default/files/The_Global_Burden.pdf Accessed on February 6, 2013.

42. International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Atlas. 5^th edition. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation; 2012. Available at:

43. Data: IDF Diabetes Atlas. Available at: http://archive.diabetesatlas.org/content/regional-data Accessed on November 15, 2012.

44. International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Atlas. 3^rd edition. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation; 2006. Available at:

http://www.idf.org/sites/default/files/Diabetes%20Atlas%203rd%20edition.pdf Accessed on February 6, 2013.

45. United Nations - Department for Economic and Social Affairs - Population Division.

World urbanization prospects: the 1994 revision. Estimates and projections of urban and rural populations and of urban agglomerations. New York: United Nations; 1995.

46. Zhang P, Zhang X, Brown J, Vistisen D, Sicree R, Shaw J, Nichols G. Global healthcare expenditure on diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2010;

87:293-301.

47. World Health Organization. Health topics: Life expectancy. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/life_expectancy/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

48. The World Factbook. Country comparison: Life expectancy at birth. Available at:

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

49. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory (GHO): Life expectancy at birth.

Available at:

http://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends_text/en/ind ex.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

50. World Health Organization. World Health Statistics 2011. Geneva: WHO Press; 2011.

Available at: http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS2011_Full.pdf Accessed on November 15, 2012.

51. The World Factbook. Africa: Swaziland. Available at:

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wz.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

52. Coale AJ, Banister J. Five decades of missing females in China. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1996; 140(4):421-50.

53. Boseley S. Japan’s life expectancy down to equality and public health measures. The Guardian. August 30 2011.

54. Nayu I, Eiko S, Naoki K, Manami I, Shunya I, Toshihiko S, et al. What has made the population of Japan healthy? The Lancet 2011; 378(9796):1094.

Page | 45 55. World Health Organization. Health topics: tuberculosis. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/tuberculosis/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

56. World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report 2012. Geneva: WHO Press; 2012.

Available at: http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/gtbr12_main.pdf Accessed on February 7, 2013.

57. World Health Organization. Media centre: Tuberculosis. Available at:

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

58. World Health Organization. Health topics: urban health. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/urban_health/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

59. World Health Organization. Why urban health matters. Available at:

http://www.who.int/features/2010/urban_health/en/index.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

60. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory (GHO): urban health. Available at:http://www.who.int/gho/urban_health/en/index.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

61. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory (GHO): urban population growth.

Available at:

http://www.who.int/gho/urban_health/situation_trends/urban_population_growth/en/index .html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

62. The World Bank. Data: out-of-pocket health expenditure (% of private expenditure on health). Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.ZS Accessed on February 7, 2013.

63. World Health Organization. Health financing policy: out-of-pocket health payments and catastrophic expenditures. Available at:

http://www.who.int/health_financing/catastrophic/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

64. World Health Organization. Health topics: obesity. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/obesity/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

65. World Health Organization. Media centre: obesity and overweight. Available at:

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html Accessed on February 7, 2013.

66. World Health Organization. Health topics: alcohol. Available at:

http://www.who.int/topics/alcohol_drinking/en/ Accessed on February 7, 2013.

67. World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health. Geneva: WHO Press; 2011. Available at:

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.

pdf Accessed on February 7, 2013.

68. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Fact sheets: alcohol use and health.

Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/alcohol-use.htm Accessed on February 7, 2013.

69. The World Bank. Data: GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$). Available at:

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD/countries Accessed on February 7, 2013.

70. Country classification by income groups 2011. Available at:

http://chartsbin.com/view/5109Accessed on February 14, 2013.

71. World Health Organization. Countries. Available at:

http://www.who.int/countries/en/index.html Accessed on March 19, 2012.

72. Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:1047-53.

73. United Nations – Department for Economic and Social Affairs - Population Division.

World urbanization prospects: the 1999 revision. New York: United Nations; 1999.

Page | 46 74. Jørgensen ME, Borch-Johnsen K, Witte DR, Bjerregaard P. Diabetes in Greenland and its

relationship with urbanization. Diabetic Medicine 2012; 29(6):755-60.

75. Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Latha E, Manoharan M, Vijay V. Impacts of urbanization on the lifestyle and on the prevalence of diabetes in native Asian Indian population.

Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 1999; 44(3):207-13.

76. Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 1994; 17:961–9.

77. Carey VJ, Walters EE, Colditz GA, et al. Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The nurses’ health study. American Journal of Epidemiology 1997; 145:614-9.

78. Lundgren H, Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, Sjostrom L. Adiposity and adipose tissue distribution in relation to incidence of diabetes in women: results from a prospective population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 1989; 13:413–23.

79. Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, et al. The influence of body fat distribution on the incidence of diabetes mellitus: 13.5 years of follow-up of the participants in the study of men born in 1913. Diabetes 1985; 34:1055-8.

80. Wei M, Gaskill SP, Haffner SM, Stern MP. Waist circumference as the best predictor of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) compared to body mass index, waist/hip ratio and other anthropometric measurements in Mexican Americans – a 7-year

prospective study. Obesity Research 1997; 5:16-23.

81. Salk Institute. How obesity increases the risk for diabetes. ScienceDaily. June 22 2009.

Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090621143236.htm Accessed on March 29, 2013.

82. Dalstra JA, Kunst AE, Borrell C, Breeze E, Cambois E, Costa G, et al. Socioeconomic differences in the prevalence of common chronic diseases: an overview of eight European countries. International Journal of Epidemiology 2005; 34(2):316-26.

83. Tang M, Chen Y, Krewski D. Gender-related differences in the association between socioeconomic status and self-reported diabetes. International Journal of Epidemiology 2003; 32:381-5.

84. Espelt A, Borrell C, Roskam AJ, Rodriguez-Sanz M, Stirbu I, Dalmau-Bueno A, et al.

Socioeconomic inequalities in diabetes mellitus across Europe at the beginning of the 21^st century. Diabetologia 2008; 51:1971-9.

85. Abu Saveed M, Ali L, Hussain MZ, Rumi MA, Banu A, Azad Khan AK. Effect of socioeconomic risk factors on the difference in prevalence of diabetes between rural and urban populations in Bangladesh. Diabetes Care 1997; 20:551-5.

86. Connolly V, Unwin N, Sherriff P, Bilous R, Kelly W. Diabetes prevalence and

socioeconomic status: a population based study showing increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in deprived areas. Journal of Epidemiology Community Health 2000;

54:173-7.

87. Hoffman C, et al. Medical debt and access to health care. Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the uninsured. September 29 2006.

88. May JH, Cunningham PJ. Tough tradeoffs: medical bills, family finances, and access to care. Issue brief no. 85, June 2004. Available at:

http://www.hschange.org/CONTENT/689/ Accessed on April 9, 2013.

89. OECD. Burden of out-of-pocket health expenditure. In: Health at a glance 2011-OECD indicators. 6^th ed. OECD iLibrary: OECD Publishing; 2011. p. 134-5.Available at:

http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-2011/burden-of-out-of-pocket-health-expenditure_health_glance-2011-54-enAccessed on April 3, 2013.

Page | 47 90. Telner A. Alcohol, diabetes and health: a review. Canadian Journal of Diabetes 2002;

26(3):378-81.

91. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL. A prospective population-based study of alcohol use and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. American Journal of

Epidemiology 1990; 132:902-9.

92. Kao WHL, Puddey IB, Boland LL, et al. Alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: artherosclerosis risk in communities study. American Journal of Epidemiology 2001; 154:748-57.

93. Wei M, Gibbons LW, Mitchell TL, et al. Alcohol intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:18-22.

94. Barach JH. Historical facts in diabetes. Annals of Medical History 1928; 10:387.

95. Nichols GP. Diabetes among young tuberculosis patients. American Review of Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Diseases 1957; 76:1016-30.

96. Root HF, Bloor WR. Diabetes and pulmonary tuberculosis. American Review of Tuberculosis 1939; 39:714-37.

97. Banyai AL. Diabetes and pulmonary tuberculosis. American Review of Tuberculosis 1931; 24:650-67.

98. Boucot KR, Cooper DA, Dillon ES, Meier P, Richardson R. Tuberculosis among diabetics. American Review of Tuberculosis 1952; 65(Suppl):1-50.

99. Mori MA. Leonartson G, Welty TK. The benefits of isoniazid chemoprophylaxis and risk factors for tuberculosis among Oglala Sioux Indians. Archives of Internal Medicine 1992;

152:547-50.

100. Kim SJ, Hong YP, Lew WJ, Yang SC, Lee EG. Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis among diabetics. Tubercle and Lung Disease 1995; 76:529-33.

101. Pablos-Mendez A, Blustein J, Knirsch CA. The role of diabetes mellitus in the higher prevalence of tuberculosis among Hispanics. American Journal of Public Health 1997;

87:574-79.

102. Dyck RF, Klomp H, Marciniuk DD, Tan L, Stang MR, Ward HA, Hoeppner VH. The relationship between diabetes and tuberculosis in Saskatchewan: comparison of registered Indians and other Saskatchewan people. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2007;

98(1):55-9.

103. Guptan A, Shah A. Tuberculosis and diabetes: an appraisal. Indian Journal of Tuberculosis 2000; 47(3):1-8.

104. Oluboyo PO, Erasmus RT. The significance of glucose intolerance in pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle 1990; 71(2):135-8.

105. Jawad F, Shera AS, Memon R, Ansari G. Glucose intolerance in pulmonary tuberculosis. Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 1995; 45(9):237-8.

106. Dooley KE, Chaisson RE. Tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus: convergence of two epidemics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2009; 9(12):737-46.

107. Bloomgarden ZT. Inflammation and insulin resistance. Diabetes Care 2003; 26:1922-6.

108. Gerlings SE, Hoepelman AIM. Immune dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 1999; 26:259-65.

109. Joshi N, Caputo GM, Weitekamp MR, Karchmer AW. Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. The New England Journal of Medicine 1999; 341:1906-12.

110. Muller LMAJ, Gorter KJ, Hak E, Goudzwaard WL, Schellevis FG, et al. Increased risk of common infections in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 41:281-8.

Page | 48 111. Faurholt-Jepsen D, Range N, PrayGod G, Jeremiah K, Faurholt-Jepsen M, Aabye MG,

et al. Diabetes is a risk factor for pulmonary tuberculosis: a case-control study from Mwanza, Tanzania. PLoS ONE 2011; 6(8):e24215.

112. Goldhaber-Fiebert JD, Jeon CY, Cohen T, Murray MB. Diabetes mellitus and tuberculosis in countries with high tuberculosis burdens: individual risks and social determinants. International Journal of Epidemiology 2011; 40:417-28.

113. Root HF. The association of diabetes and tuberculosis. The New England Journal of Medicine 1934; 210:192.

114. Jeon CY, Murray MB. Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of active tuberculosis: a systematic review of 13 observational studies. PLoS Medicine 2008; 5:e152.

115. Stevenson CR, Critchley JA, Forouhi NG, et al. Diabetes and the risk of tuberculosis:

a neglected threat to public health? Chronic Illness 2007; 3:228-45.

116. Ramachandran A, Mary S, Yamuna A, Murugesan N, Snehalatha C. High prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors associated with urbanization in India. Diabetes Care 2008; 31(5):893-8.

117. World Diabetes Foundation. Media backgrounder: Diabetes in the developing world, 2011. Available at:

http://www.worlddiabetesfoundation.org/MEDIA_DiabetesInTheDevelopingWorld__Jun e2011.pdf Accessed on March 2, 2012.

118. Choi YJ, Cho YM, Park CK, Jang HC, Park KS, Kim SY, Lee HK. Rapidly increasing diabetes-related mortality with socio-environmental changes in South Korea during the last two decades. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2006; 74:295-300.

119. Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Shaw J. Global and societal implication of the diabetes epidemic. Nature 2001; 414:782-7.

120. World Health Organization. Demographic trends: in health situation in the South-East Asia Region 1998-2000. Geneva: WHO Press; 2002.

121. King H, Aubert RE, Herman WH. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections. Diabetes Care 1998; 21(9):1414-31.

122. World Health Organization. Media centre: obesity and overweight. Available at:

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ Accessed on April 3, 2013.

123. Thrall JH. Prevalence and costs of chronic disease in a health care system structured for treatment of acute illness. Radiology 2005; 235:9-12.

124. Mbanya JC. Healthy ageing in a global world-opportunities and challenges. World Health Day Forum: Monash University, 3^rd April 2012. Available at:

http://www.idf.org/sites/default/files/IDF%20President%20on%20Healthy%20Ageing.pdf Accessed on April 4, 2013.

125. World Health Organization. 10 facts on obesity. Available at:

http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/obesity/en/index.html Accessed on April 4, 2013.

126. Khan MT. Diabetes mellitus and sugar consumption; an ecological study. MPh thesis.

Umeå University; 2011.

Page | 49

APPENDICES

Appendix A

Income groups^3,4

Low-income: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Tajikistan, Togo, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

Lower middle-income: Angola, Armenia, Belize, Bhutan, Bolivia (Plurinational State of ), Cameroon, Cape Verde, China, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Georgia, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, Kiribati, Lesotho, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of ), Mongolia, Morocco, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Philippines, Republic of Moldova, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Syrian Arab

In document The escalating diabetes epidemic: determinants of prevalence disparity between country income groups (sider 52-62)