Clinical features, classification and staging

OC is an aggressive disease with a high mortality rate that reflects the fact that this tumor develops without an obvious symptom profile, rendering it difficult to diagnose at early stages and resulting in widespread disease at diagnosis. The symptoms of ovarian cancer are often vague and include abdominal pain or discomfort, bowel irregularity, persistent fatigue, weight loss, distended or tense abdomen, pain outside the abdominal cavity, frequent urination, and

respiratory difficulties (21,27,33). Women suffering from one or more of the aforementioned symptoms are likely to be referred to an internal medicine or general surgery unit instead of a gynecological unit, unlike women with symptoms such as vaginal bleeding or discharge, resulting in delayed diagnosis and treatment (33). During examination, physical findings typically include a palpable ovarian mass, in addition to an increase in abdominal girth as a result of ascites formation and dyspnea due to pleural effusion (21,27,28). Transvaginal ultrasonography (TVS) or computed tomographic (CT) is often carried out for further assessment of the pelvic mass, if OC is suspected on the basis of the above-mentioned findings. The presence of a complex ovarian mass with both solid and cystic components, sometimes with septations and internal echoes, is highly suggestive of OC. The occurrence and formation of ascites is suggestive of advanced disease and an exploratory laparotomy is usually done for histological confirmation, staging and tumor debulking (21,27,28).

The symptoms of OC are often nonspecific. Thus, early detection might to a large extent improve survival, if discovery of the early lesions on routine physical examination can lead to surgery prior to metastasis and if tumors remain localized for a satisfactory interval to allow effective screening (21,27). Given its prevalence, strategies for early recognition of this disease must have a high sensitivity (>75%) for early-stage disease, and very high specificity (99.6%) to accomplish a positive predictive value of 10% or greater (21,27). Serum cancer antigen-125 (CA-125), TVS and a combination of both methodologies have been evaluated for their ability to detect OC at early stages. However, CA-125 level as a single marker in the screening test lacks sensitivity and specificity. Greater specificity can be achieved by combining CA-125 and TVS, by monitoring of CA-125 concentration over time, or both. The use of CA-125 with additional biomarkers in a panel might increase the sensitivity.

Development of sensitive and specific biomarkers based on different proteomic profiles has been suggested to be effective in early detection of OC (27).

Classification of primary cancers of ovary is performed according to the structures of the ovary from which they are derived. Ovarian neoplasms are classified as surface epithelial tumors, sex cord-stromal tumors, germ cell tumors and secondary tumors (34). Most of the epithelial tumors are believed to develop from epithelial cells covering the ovary or lining inclusion cysts (21,34), and these cells are thought to derive from the coelomic epithelium of mesodermal origin. OC are the most common ovarian malignancies and account for 90% of all malignant ovarian neoplasms. OC is histologically categorized according to cell type into serous, mucinous, endometrioid, clear cell, transitional, squamous, mixed and undifferentiated (35,36). According to world Health Organization (WHO) classification based on microscopic evaluation of the amount of epithelial cell proliferation, the degree of nuclear atypia and the presence or absence of stromal invasion, tumors in each of these categories are further divided into benign, borderline and malignant forms (35,36). Serous tumors are the most frequent epithelial tumors, and are composed of cells ranging in appearance from those resembling the fallopian tube epithelium in well differentiated tumors to anaplastic cells in poorly

differentiated tumors (34,35). The growth pattern of serous carcinoma varies from glandular to papillary to solid. OC is histologically graded 1 to 3, corresponding to well differentiated, moderately differentiated and poorly differentiated, respectively (35,37).

OC spreads primarily by direct shedding of carcinoma cells throughout the peritoneal cavity forming ascites and multifocal tumor metastases to other peritoneal compartments/organs, including the urinary bladder, uterus, bowel, omentum, and mesocolic lymph nodes. The most frequent extra-abdominal site of distant metastasis is the pleural space, and distant metastasis

to the parenchyma of the liver, lungs, and other organs is less common (27). Patients with early-stage OC (stages I-II) have long-term survival (>10 years) rates in the 80-95% range, whereas 75% of patients with advanced disease (stages III-IV) have low long-term survival rates, ranging from 10-30% (27). The spreading pattern of OC is reflected in the FIGO staging system, detailed in Table 1 (37).

Table 1. FIGO staging of OC (1988) (37)

Growth limited to the ovaries

Growth limited to one ovary; no ascites present containing malignant cells. No tumor on the external surface; capsule intact

Growth limited to both ovaries; no ascites present containing malignant cells.

No tumor on the external surfaces; capsules intact

Tumor either Stage Ia or Ib, but with tumor on surface of one or both ovaries, or with capsule ruptured, or with ascites present containing malignant cells, or with positive peritoneal washings

Growth involving one or both ovaries with pelvic extension Extension and/or metastases to the uterus and/or tubes Extension to other pelvic tissues

Tumor either Stage IIa or IIb, but with tumor on surface of one or both ovaries, or with capsule(s) ruptured, or with ascites present containing malignant cells, or with positive peritoneal washings

Tumor involving one or both ovaries with histologically confirmed peritoneal implants outside the pelvis and/or positive retroperitoneal or inguinal nodes. Superficial liver metastases equals Stage III. Tumor is limited to the true pelvis, but with histologically proven malignant extension to small bowel or omentum

Tumor grossly limited to the true pelvis, with negative nodes, but with

histologically confirmed microscopic seeding of abdominal peritoneal surfaces, or histologic proven extension to small bowel or mesentery

Tumor of one or both ovaries with histologically confirmed implants, peritoneal metastasis of abdominal peritoneal surfaces, none exceeding 2 cm in diameter;

nodes are negative

Peritoneal metastasis beyond the pelvis >2 cm in diameter and/or positive retroperitoneal or inguinal nodes

Growth involving one or both ovaries with distant metastases. If pleural effusion is present, there must be positive cytology to allot a case to Stage IV. Parenchymal liver metastasis equals Stage IV.

a In order to evaluate the impact on prognosis of the different criteria for allotting cases to Stage Ic or IIc, it would be of value to know if rupture of the capsule was spontaneous, or caused by the surgeon; and if the source of malignant cells detected was peritoneal washings or ascites