Epoxy resins, such as Thermaset® and CannSeal sealant, can be used as permanent sealants if verified for long term isolation. Table 3.2 lists up properties of Thermaset®, an epoxy resin sealant developed by WellCem AS [17] which has been certified as a permanent isolation material according to the ISO 14310 V3 standard. This means that the material has been tested for isolation of liquid, resistance against axial stress and temperature cycling. In addition, SINTEF has done an aging test on this material which has been further described in Chap.
2.3.1.
Table 3.2 – Properties of Thermaset®
compared to neat Portland G Cement. [17]
Properties Thermaset Portland G Cement
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The Portland G Cement used in Table 3.2 does not include any cement additives and the numbers does not reflect the cement actually designed for plugging purposes. It can however be noticed how superior the epoxy resin is compared to the cement properties that are listed. Thermaset® is stronger and ductile which are properties that are proposed in the NORSOK D-010 guidelines. The standardized verification and long term test indicates that the material is well suited for permanent abandonment barriers.
CannSeal sealant is another epoxy resin which can be used in plugging operations, but has currently not been qualified as a permanent abandonment barrier. The application of CannSeal together with the CannSeal wireline tool will be further discussed in Chap. 9.1.
Epoxy resins are liquid polymers that will set when exposed to high temperatures.
They have low permeability, will bond to the steel, are elastic and can withstand high stress levels. Rheology and density can specifically be designed for each purpose.
The density of ThermaSet® can be as low as 5.83 ppg (0.70 sg) [17]. The manufacturers guarantee accurate setting time, no shrinkage and no particles that will cause instabilities.
Epoxy resins can be used for isolating perforations, setting of balanced plugs and repairing the cement sheath, however there is limited field experience for these applications compared to cement. After possibly achieving verification for long term integrity, they should definitely be taken into consideration when choosing barrier material prior to a plug and
abandonment campaign; even if it is more expensive than cement.
3.2.2 Sand Slurry
Sandaband Well Plugging AS has developed sand slurry designed for pressure isolation purposes [18] [19].
Unconsolidated sand slurry, or Sandaband®, can be used as a plugging within the barrier, making it gas tight. The barrier will hold differential pressure higher than the hydrostatic pressure from the sand slurry column. However, a sufficient column of sand slurry above the source of inflow is necessary to isolate.
The particles are made of microsilica, quartz and crushed rocks and held together with electrostatic forces. The fluid part comprises water, deflocculant and viscosifier. Even with the high percentage of particles, the slurry is pumpable and can be used as barrier material for the bullheading operation described in Chap.
6.2 or in conjunction with the Cannseal annular barrier discussed in Chap. 7.3.4.
The slurry does not set up in the same way as other sealants. It acts like a liquid when pumped, and it will seal when it is left in the well. The column of sand slurry is continuously packed, does not contain any free water and will heal itself. The self-healing properties are unique. When the sand slurry is subjected to stress above the yield point, it will deform plastically and then continue to seal afterwards. Instead of failing, the material will partially change
25 state to a fluid and then reshape. This
means that the slurry will seal even when subjected to high stress levels and tectonic activity.
The sand slurry is qualified through laboratory and field testing for 10 years, and according to the supplier, the Sandaband® product meets all the NORSOK D-010 guidelines. The decision to apply this plugging material for any isolating purposes depends on each individual operator.
3.2.3 Formations as P&A Barrier
Before any well is drilled hydrocarbons are kept from leaking to surface with the help of natural isolation material. Formations are the original isolating barriers and can be used for abandonment purposes if the barriers can be verified [20].
During drilling, reactive shale with high clay content can swell and cause hole stability problems when exposed to water based drilling fluids. The swelling reaction can be used as an advantage when setting barriers for abandonment.
Williams et al (2009) [20] have proposed several requirements for how shale formations can be regarded as an annular barrier. These requirements are as follows.
1. The barrier must be shale. Shale fulfills the material properties in issued in the NORSOK D-010 [7].
2. The shale must have sufficient strength when exposed to reservoir pressure. This includes calculating the worst case pressure traverse from the reservoir. The strength of the formation must be verified with a leak off test.
3. The formation displacement mechanism which creates the annular barrier must be formation circumference of the pipe and must be of sufficient length to fulfill the barrier length requirements for P&A barriers in NORSOK D-010 Formation creep can be used in combination with a balanced plug inside the casing and can act as a long term abandonment barrier. This will be further discussed in Chap. 7.3.3 when introducing the method of setting a balanced plug in cased wellbores.
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4 P&A RIGS
Plugging operations can be conducted with a drilling rig or rigless depending on the well configuration, condition and the services and equipment available. The equipment and services employed determines operational progress and ultimately the final cost of the operation.
This chapter will discuss the different types of services and equipment available for plugging operations, their capabilities and their limitations. This is intended to provide the reader with a perspective of the conditions under which a plugging operation is conducted.