NORSK HOTELLHØGSKOLE
BACHELOROPPGAVE
STUDIUM:
Bachelor i Hotelledelse
OPPGAVEN ER SKREVET INNEN FØLGENDE FAGOMRÅDE:
Introduction to Hotel Management, Technology and Tourism Industry, Strategic Hotel Management
ER OPPGAVEN KONFIDENSIELL?
Nei
TITTEL:
Destination Image: what are foreigners’ perceptions of Nordic countries?
- a qualitative analysis using Leximancer
ENGELSK TITTEL:
FORFATTERE:
VEILEDER:
Kandidatnummer: Studentnummer: Navn:
Huseyin Arasli
6127
………. 250128 ……… Tara France Osland
……….
6103
………. 249567 ……… Anna Hadland
……….
6152
……….
250038
………
Miriam Karolina Espeland Almestad
……….
Destination Image: what are foreigners’ perceptions of Nordic countries?
a qualitative analysis using Leximancer
BACHELOR ASSIGNMENT
Norsk Hotellhøgskole: Hotelledelse 20 studiepoeng
Tara France Osland Miriam Karolina E. Almestad
Anna Hadland
Mai 2021
1. PREFACE
Our time as students at the Norwegian School of Hotel Management at the University of Stavanger has eventually come to an end. In that connection we submit our final bachelor thesis.
Overall, it has been three exciting and challenging years. Our motivation for the topic derives from different subjects we have completed during our bachelor’s degree in Hotel Management.
The theme we have chosen is essentially tourism-related, although it goes hand in hand with hotel subjects. We especially gained interest in branding, social media, and the art of using resources when we studied the elective courses of Introduction to Hotel Management, Technology and The Tourism Industry and Strategic Hotel Management. On these grounds we wanted to investigate what image foreigners have of Nordic countries as destinations. The limited amount of research on the destination image topic of Nordic countries explains our interest in writing about these countries in particular.
First, we would like to thank our advisor Huseyin Arasli for guidance, direction, and advice throughout this process. Thank you for being available through both email and phone. Thank you to Mehmet Saydam, who with his knowledge about the Leximancer program has been of great importance to the data collection. We would further like to thank Lukasz Derdowski who has been our lecturer in Social Science Method, an area of knowledge valuable for our research and its structure. Finally, we would like to thank the study program managers for Hotel- and Tourism Management Åsa Helen Grahn and Heidi Victoria Skeiseid.
We also would like to thank our fellow students and other lecturers who have helped us to develop a more objective and reflective approach to various phenomena. The bachelor degree has given us a lot of knowledge and experience, and we are thus proud to present our thesis as a result of three educational years.
2. ABSTRACT
The concept of ´Destination Image` is essentially related to the thoughts, notions, and perceptions a person has of a place. The phenomenon is an important attribute for destinations in terms of their nation brand and visitor image, and the topic has thus become a prominent field of study. However, there is a lack of literature focusing on the destination image of Nordic countries. To contribute to the apparent gap in research, this study aims to determine foreigners’
image of Nordic countries – being Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland. The study examines the main themes and concepts of online reviews about Nordic countries shared by travelers. Leximancer 4.5 software was used to identify the co-occurrence of these objectives in online narratives from a total of 1500 reviews on TripAdvisor. Our findings and discussions are also based on literature in terms of how the Nordic countries market themselves as destinations, in addition to former destination images studies. The findings of our study could hopefully provide Nordic countries with valuable insight to achieve success and competitive advantage in the marketplace. On the grounds of the latter information our issue statement reads as follows:
“What is foreigners’ image of the Nordic countries as destinations?”
To examine the 1500 reviews of the Nordic countries shared by travelers on TripAdvisor, the study used a qualitative content analysis. A convenience sampling technique was utilized with the intention of selecting the most describing and rich-in-content reviews. Prior to applying the Leximancer program, the data collected was kept in an Excel database. The following presents the themes revealed by content analyses for each country. Norway: place, guide, interesting, hike, shops, camping and ferry. Sweden: place, tour, history, park, beach, town, and cathedral.
Denmark: place, tour, history, view, beach, activities, and animals. Finland: place, ski, food, tour, activities, animals, museum and island. Iceland: tour, glacier, beach, people, hiking, city, museum, tourists and night.
3. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. PREFACE ... 1
2. ABSTRACT ... 2
3. TABLE OF CONTENTS ... 3
4. TABLE- AND FIGURE LIST ... 5
5. INTRODUCTION ... 6
6. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
6.1. Destination image ... 7
6.2. The image formation process ... 8
6.3. Norway ... 11
6.4. Sweden ... 15
6.5. Denmark ... 17
6.6. Finland ... 20
6.7. Iceland ... 22
7. METHODOLOGY ... 26
7.1. Research context ... 26
7.2. Data collection ... 26
7.3. Methodology approach ... 27
8. RESULTS ... 29
8.1. Norway ... 29
8.2. Sweden ... 34
8.3. Denmark ... 38
8.4. Finland ... 43
8.5. Iceland ... 47
9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ... 52
9.1. Norway ... 52
9.2. Sweden ... 57
9.3. Denmark ... 60
9.4. Finland ... 64
9.5. Iceland ... 67
9.6. Conclusions ... 71
9.7. Theoretical contributions and future research ... 72
10. LIMITATIONS ... 73
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 74
4. TABLE- AND FIGURE LIST
Figure 1: Concept map of Norway ... 29
Figure 2: Favorable concepts Norway... 33
Figure 3: Unfavorable concepts Norway... 33
Figure 4: Concept map of Sweden ... 34
Figure 5: Favorable concepts Sweden ... 38
Figure 6: Concept map Denmark ... 38
Figure 8: Favorable concepts Denmark... 42
Figure 7: Unfavorable concepts Denmark... 42
Figure 9: Concept map of Finland ... 43
Figure 10: Unfavorable concepts Finland ... 47
Figure 11: Favorable concepts Finland ... 47
Figure 12: Concept map of Iceland ... 47
Figure 14: Unfavorable concepts Iceland ... 52
Figure 13: Favorable concepts Iceland ... 52
5. INTRODUCTION
Tourism is considered to be one of the most diverse and largest industries in the world. In fact, it is across the globe relied on as a primary source for generating revenue, and thus seen as a vast opportunity for increasing employment, infrastructure development and private sector growth (World Tourism Organization, 1997, p. 3). Representing one of the fastest growing economies in the world does not simply imply increased economic growth, but suggests a greater demand of variety and diverse experiences from travelers in choice of destination (Øian et al. 2018; World Tourism Organization, 1997). To achieve effective marketing of a tourism destination, it is imperative to recognize the image that tourists possess of the destination, as well as to identify its strengths and weaknesses (Kladou & Mavragani, 2015, p. 188). Notably since what differentiates one destination from another, is the key to success and real competitive advantage in the marketplace (Alcocer & Ruiz, 2019, p. 3). Eventually, this has resulted in destinations being more attentive to their nation brand, in addition to their visitor image - what are travelers’ perceptions of this particular destination? (Tseng, Wu, Morrison, Zhang & Chen, 2015, p. 348).
Considering the importance of the image in creating success of a specific tourism destination, and the fact that scholars have found that tourists` perceptions is closely linked with visit intentions, the concept of what we call “destination image” has become one of the most explored fields in tourism research (Alcocer & Ruiz, 2019; Kladou & Mavragani, 2015; Tseng et al., 2015). The scope of current studies approaches the topic from different viewpoints, while also focusing on various destinations (Alcocer & Ruiz, 2019, p. 2446). However, there is a lack of literature focusing on the destination image of Nordic countries in particular. The term
“Nordic” represents the countries of northern Europe, being Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
Finland and Iceland, along with Greenland, Faroe Islands and the Åland islands as associated territories (Hall, Muller & Saarinen, 2008, p. 2). Nordic countries have in recent years encountered an increasingly rapid growth in influx of tourists, although the number of visitors still have been modest in comparison to most other European countries (Hjalager et al. 2008;
Øian et al. 2018). The Nordic region is known for its natural beauty, and while nature-based tourism is considered to be a flourishing trend in the industry, this has long dominated in Northern countries (Øian et al. 2018: 13). Subsequently, relative growth has in some cases, such as for Iceland and Norway, been quite remarkable (Hjalager et al. 2008: 11). As a matter of fact, their abundant iconic nature attractions differs from the other Nordic countries, which in turn has implied a greater number of visitors to geographically concentrated areas. On the other hand, Sweden and Finland have had a more even development of tourism (Øian et al. 2018:
18). To contribute to the current gap in research literature, this study assesses the image of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland in how foreigners perceive these countries as destinations. Our two definitive objectives is to:
1. Identify the most prominent themes amongst travelers´ reviews on TripAdvisor
2. Determine the main concepts conveyed through the online reviews about Nordic countries
6. LITERATURE REVIEW
6.1. Destination image
The competition between destinations is both large and intense. It is therefore important for destinations to cause a differentiated destination image in order to stand out in the competitive global market (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003, p. 37). Destination image plays an important role when trying to understand the behaviour of travelers and developing marketing strategies (Echtner &
Ritchie, 2003, p. 38). According to Crompton (1979) destination image is the “sum of beliefs,
ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination” (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003, p. 41).
Angela Phelps (1986) defined destination image as an individual’s perception or impressions of a place (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003, p. 41). These definitions focus on the perceptual and cognitive part of the destination image, and not the affective part. The perceptual and cognitive part is what you know about a destination's objective attributes, and the affective what you feel about it (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999, p. 870). These two components form the overall destination image. According to the “Path Model of the Determinants of Tourism Destination Image Before Actual Visitation” there are many factors that can impact the overall perception.
The General framework of destination formation model shows that personal factors and stimulus factors are two forces that have a major impact on destination image (Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999, p. 870). Personal factors are psychological and social factors. Stimulus factors are information sources, previous experience and distribution (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999, p.
870). The correlation between destination image and tourist satisfaction has been found through a review of tourist literature. There are a number of studies which show that tourist satisfaction is a critical factor and when the destination picture is positive, the greater satisfaction (Alcocer
& Ruiz, 2019, p. 2445).
6.2. The image formation process
Previous research has emphasized the value of understanding the forces by which image development is shaped; what factors affect the formation of an individual`s image of a particular destination? (Jalilvand, Samiei, Dini & Manzari, 2012, p. 134). The development of image has a multidimensional nature - which is to say that its formation in fact is caused by a multitude of factors. Accordingly, destination image can be derived from exposure to information resources (Hamidizadeh, Cheh, Moghadam & Salimipour, 2016, p. 109).
Marketing of tourism destinations that encompasses the image formation process, is reliant on available information resources. This is due to the fact that the information assets often affect consumers decision-making (Hamidizadeh et al., 2016, p. 109). For example, a study from 2012 found that tourists` information sources have a substantial impact on destination choice intention (Jalilvand et al., 2012, p. 134). Thus, academics and practitioners have progressively recognized the importance of the Internet in relation to the image formation process (Hidalgo Alcázar, Sicilia Pinero & Ruiz de Maya, 2014, p. 158). The Internet has in recent decades played a key role in how tourism-related information is distributed, in addition to the way people both plan for and consume travel (Kladou & Mavragani, 2015, p. 188). Virtual interactions among travelers have become increasingly prevalent, precisely because electronic media easily facilitates search for potential destinations, lodging and leisure activities (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014; Jalilvand et al., 2012). With direct access to a wealth of valuable information, potential travelers can now purchase goods online without having to rely on travel agencies.
Eventually research has affirmed that online browsing is dominant when it comes to both the affective and cognitive dimensions of the image formation process (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014, p. 158).
In line with these technological advantages, several tourism scholars have pointed out the important performance of what we call electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) (Jalilvand et al., 2012; Kladou & Mavragani, 2015). In a study on travel blogs as a destination image formation agent in China, the general concept of eWOM is suggested as “all informal communications directed at consumers through Internet-based technology related to the usage or characteristics of particular goods and services, or their sellers” (Tseng et al., 2015, p. 349). While there exists a considerable amount of new electronic media that expedite WOM, complaint sites, bulletin boards and discussion groups have especially gained importance (Jalilvand, 2016, p. 152).
Jalilvand et al. (2012) found that one-third of tourists visited an online community or message forum prior to online travel purchase, on the grounds that they considered online reviews to be significantly helpful in the decision-making process. In addition, previous studies have shown that 74% of travelers benefit from user-generated content (UGC) as information sources when planning for vacation getaways (Jalilvand et al., 2012, p. 135). UGC encompasses information that is both created and used by consumers online, with the purpose of educating potential buyers and exchange knowledge concerning different products and services (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014, p. 159). As eWOM is considered a powerful tool of communication decisions and promotion, it is proven to be one of the most predominant and persuasive information resources in forming a destination image (Ishida et al., 2016, p. 1).
A hallmark for the hospitality and tourism industry is that products offered are intangible.
Unlike other retail products, this means that quality is often unknown before purchase or consumption, which carries a high degree of uncertainty (Ishida et al., 2016; Jalilvand et al., 2012). In light of the experiential nature of these products, eWOM and, more specifically, online reviews reduce this ambivalence in addition to perceived riskiness (Ishida et al., 2016, p. 2). Accordingly, it is relied on by potential travelers in forming images (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014, p. 159). The latter description is especially relevant for choice of destination, seeing that eWOM conveys advice and insight from travelers that in fact already have visited the destination at issue (Ishida et al., 2016, p. 2). For this reason, online reviews are often perceived to be more reliable, trust-worthy and up-to-date than consultation from professionals or travel service providers themselves. This also explains why each year hundreds of millions of prospective visitors turn to online reviews (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014, p. 158).
“The main attribute of media is its presence in everywhere” (Hamidizadeh et al., 2016, p. 110).
Therefore, negative eWOM can, on an equal footing as positive experiences, be quite inevitable.
Also, travelers with poor experiences are much more likely to publish online reviews in comparison to those with positive experiences (Olsen & Blumenfeld, 2016, p. 3). Previous research found that negative eWOM has an overwhelming effect on a destination`s image, seeing that unflattering content from dissatisfied travelers easily circulates online (Jalilvand, 2016, p. 153). When tourists trust media sources, it is likely for the information presented to have a compelling effect on their opinions and attitude towards the destination (Hidalgo Alcázar et al., 2014, p. 159). Ultimately we see that the Internet provides important information sources for travelers in forming destination images, while also being a crucial reference in relation to travel decisions. As tourism in Nordic countries continues to increase, eWOM and UGC could potentially be a powerful destination image agent (Tseng et al., 2015, p. 350).
6.3. Norway
6.3.1. Tourism in Norway
Norway is a fairly new holiday destination and has not yet reached the highest position when it comes to United Nations World Tourism Organization`s (UNWTO) tourist arrival lists, which is conducted every year. In 2014 Norway was represented on the list which showed the fifty most visited countries, but came on the 44th place on a list regarding Tourism Receipts the same year (Klimova, 2015, p. 6). In recent decades the number of foreign tourists has increased in Norway, which has had a positive effect on the Norwegian economy. In 2008, tourist expenditure amounted to 31 billion NOK. In 2018, it had increased to 55 billion NOK, a corresponding growth of 4 percent (Innovation Norway, 2019, p.11).
6.3.2. Norway as a destination
Every country which positions itself as a tourism destination has a destination brand and brand strategies. According to Klimova (2015), Visit Norway identifies four main attractions that Norway`s travel brand is built up on:
1) “Spectacular fjords, coast and natural phenomena;
2) Fresh seafood and coastal specialties;
3) Nature based activities
4) Thriving coastal culture (fishing, seafaring)”.
(Klimova, 2015, p. 6).
Norway is an elongated and scenic country, with dramatic waterfalls, crystal clear fjords and majestic mountains. In total, there are over 1000 fjords in Norway, including the Geriangerfjord and the Nærøyfjord, which have been placed on UNESCO's prestigious World Heritage List (Visit Norway, 2021a). In light of the latter information, Norway's most popular outdoor activities are amongst others hiking, skiing, biking, fishing and paddling (Visit Norway, 2021b).
The Pulpit Rock, overlooking the famous Lysefjord, is in fact one of Norway`s most famous mountain hikes visited by more than 300 000 hikers each year (Visit Norway, 2021c).
Road trips are also considered as a fairly popular activity in terms of experiencing the country`s natural phenomenons. The country has 18 scenic roads which represent Norway's natural highlights combining nature, design, and architecture (Visit Norway, 2021d). In other words, Norway's position when it comes to nature-based tourism is strong. According to Innovation Norway foreigners have a desire to explore both the country's nature and culture when visiting the country (Innovation Norway, 2019, p. 45). Research also reports that among tourists
vacationing in Norway, few of them travel with children and only 13 percent have kids under 18 years old (Innovation Norway, 2019, p. 27).
With reference to Visit Norway`s website, the following present the top ten places to visit in Norway: Oslo, Tromsø and the land of the Northern lights, Lofoten and Nordland, Bergen, the Geirangerfjord, Stavanger, Trondheim, Kristiansand, the mountains and valleys of Eastern Norway and the Svalbard's Island (Visit Norway, 2021e). Oslo is the capital of Norway, and is in fact one of the fastest growing cities in Europe (Visit Norway, 2021f). There are a number of points-of-interests in Oslo, such as the famous Vigeland Sculpture Park. Both the park itself and its 214 sculptures are designed and made by the sculptor Gustav Vigeland. The park, which is open all year and free of entry, has over 1 million visitors each year (Visit Norway, 2021g)
During the last few years there has been a formidable change in the food and drink culture in Norway. Focus on local and organic food is described as a culinary revolution, and several Norwegian chefs have become quite famous abroad. In fact, some of them have even won the international cooking competition Bocuse d’Or numerous times. Before 2016 Norway had none Michelin restaurants. In 2021 there are currently 12 (Visit Norway, 2021h).
6.3.3. Current Destination Image studies of Norway
There are not many studies on the concept of Norway`s destination image, but one in particular focuses on Norway as a ski destination. The study`s results identifies six main activities that tourists associate Norway with during the winter season: alpine skiing, crosscountry skiing, general destination criteria, children, friendliness and snow (Andersen, Øian, Aas & Tangeland, 2018, p. 2). Another study is researching the differences in Northern Norway`s destination image related to culture and travel distance among foreigners. The study conducts a self-
administered survey with an organized questionnaire on the most seeking Arctic destination in Northern Norway, namely the North Cape (Jensen, Chen & Korneliussen, 2015, p. 1). Results report that Scandinavians associate North of Norway with the Sami people, while Germans associate the country with midnight sun and reindeers. Latin people on the other hand view Northern Norway as a winter destination including cross country skiing and other snow activities. Finally the Japanese associate Northern Norway with the North Pole (Jensen, Chen
& Korneliussen, 2015, p. 11). In summary the study found a significant correlation between cultural groups and their destination image of Northern Norway (Jensen, Chen & Korneliussen, 2015, p. 15).
A study conducted at the University of Wurzburg in Germany interviewed 758 students to determine the Images of the North among young Germans. In this case the context of the
“North” contained the countries of Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland. Different aspects was considered, the first being experiences with and in Northern Europe and the second which was associations students had with these four countries. Among the students who had already visited Norway, the typical associations were fjords, glaciers and maritime activity.
Associations of those who had not been to Norway were cold, snow, Norwegian sweater and monarchy. Overall, the results of the study reports that students perceived Norway as an attractive tourist destination with great nature and cold climate. In addition, they had an image of Norway being a rich country in terms of oil and fish, as well as perceiving it as an expensive destination. The most frequent associations were: fjords (37%), Oslo (21%), coldness (19%), snow (9%) and oil (9%). Further associations were moose (7%), Norwegian sweater (6%), fish (6%), expensive (6%) (Schroödl, 2009, p. 68).
6.4. Sweden
6.4.1. Tourism in Sweden
According to the World Tourism Organization international tourism highlights report in 2019, International tourist arrivals in Sweden in 2017 was 7054 (World Tourism organization, 2019).
In 2018, the value generated through tourism related expenditure was 337 billion sek which added 2,6% to Sweden's GDP and 6,4 % of Swedens total exports (OECD Tourism trends and policies, 2020).
6.4.2. Sweden as a destination
Traveling to Sweden is like traveling on a magical holiday with majestic palaces, beautiful and varied nature, vibrant cities, the northern lights and the midnight sun. In Sweden, there are also about 100,000 lakes and archipelagos (Tripadvisor, 2021). Sweden has 15 properties inscribed on the Unesco world heritage list and is therefore on the top 20 list (UNESCO, 2021). The high coast is on the UNESCO World Heritage site and is according to visit Sweden a popular tourist destination (Visit Sweden, 2020a). Sweden's untouched nature is the habitat for wild animals like lynx, bears, reindeer, moose and different kinds of birds (Visit Sweden, 2021a). It is possible to book wildlife safaris where guides bring you places where it is possible to spot wild animals in their natural habitat. Guided boat tours let you explore the swedish archipelago with 30000 islands and skerries. This is the perfect place for natural experiences with activities like kayaking, fishing, hiking and biking. Swedish Lappland has a lot of exciting activities and guided tours where you can explore the northern light and go on dogsled safari. Learn about Sami culture, and experience the midnight sun or the northern lights (Visit Sweden, 2021b).
During winter, it is almost possible to ski anywhere in Sweden and one of the largest ski resorts in northern Europe is located in central Sweden (Visit Sweden, 2020b).
Despite the Nordic charm, Sweden can offer a vibrant urban city life with fashion, design, food, history, traditions and lifestyle (Visit Sweden, 2021c). In 2017 Visit Sweden did a collaboration with regions in Sweden to start a food export program with the goal to strengthen Sweden's image as a meal destination and attract tourists because of the food. The goal is that this program will make food tourism the main reason to travel to Sweden (Visit Sweden, 2021d).
Sweden's most progressive cuisine is featured in Malmö. Stockholm does not only offer great variation with history and urban adventures, but with a short boat ride you can enjoy the ocean and explore the archipelago. In the heart of Stockholm, the city park called Royal Djurgården is a place where you can find parkland, forest, canals and harbour sides (Visit Sweden, 2020c).
This is also where you can find various museums, like ABBA museum, Vasa museum and the Skansen open-air historical museum. There is also a Zoo here where it is possible to see nordic wildlife, but also exotic animals from Africa. South of Sweden, the city of Gothenburg offers outdoor adventures, amazing views and in the surrounding archipelago the seafood is amazing (Tripadvisor, 2021).
According to visit Sweden, Reputation Institute’s Country Rep Trak 2018 says Sweden is first of 55 countries and when international travellers are asked what they most associate with Sweden, the reply is a beautiful country, unspoilt nature, accessible to all, openness, freedom and sustainability (Visit Sweden, 2021c). According to the survey Sweden is ahead of neighboring Scandinavian countries on the association scale when asked about words like
“modern, forward-thinking and progressive”. Also new technology and innovation, literature and film, music and fashion (Visit Sweden, 2021c).
6.4.3. Current Destination Image studies of Sweden
With reference to the literature section of Norway in the current study, the research conducted in Germany found that typical associations of people who had been to Sweden was “idyllic nature”, cultural land estates, Stockholm and Hennes & Mauritz. The most frequently mentioned associations in the group that had never been to Sweden were IKEA, Swedes, blondes and Astrid Lindgren. Overall, tourists mostly associated Sweden with nature, lakes, and moose, alongside IKEA, Astrid Lindgren and the kingdom of the good looking blondes.
The most frequent associations were: IKEA (54%), Stockholm (20%), Moose (16%), Astrid Lindgren (15%) and blond hair (14%). Further associations were: Lakes (8%), blondinen (7%), cold (7%), Abba (6%), H&M (6%) (Schroödl, 2009, p. 55).
6.5. Denmark
6.5.1. Tourism in Denmark
Empirical evidence shows that the tourism industry in Denmark is growing. Statistics in fact indicate that there were over 56.1 million overnight stays in 2019, including both international- and domestic tourism. The Germans represents the biggest tourist group. In 2018, 3.5 million of visitors in Denmark were German travelers. On the top five list of the country's visitors foreigners from Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States of America is also represented (Statista, 2020).
6.5.2. Denmark as a destination
Denmark is the perfect tourist destination for families and has a variety of different attractions - including many amusement parks which appeal to people of all ages. The Lion Zoo, Legoland in Billund and the Carnival in Copenhagen are some of the most popular family activities (Visit Denmark, 2021a; Visit Denmark, 2021b). Denmark is also known for its popular holiday
houses. The country actually broke records with approximately 200.000 holiday-house rentals in 2017, which are still growing in popularity (Statistics Denmark, n.d.).
With over 11000 km of marked cycle routes, the country is one of the best places in the world to cycle in - both for top-trained or totally inexperienced road riders. Accordingly, many tourists take their bicycles when vacationing in Denmark (Visit Denmark, 2021c). One of the most popular bicycle routes is in the coastal town of Skagen, situated in North Denmark (Visit Nordjylland, 2021a). Skagen is a very charming town, where visitors can experience a bustling city life, their unique yellow houses, art and spectacular nature including white sand beaches (Visit Nordjylland, 2021b).
In the beginning of the early 2000s Denmark developed a more modern culinary kitchen called the new Nordic Cuisine. The concept became a hit and is defined by seasonality, sustainability, local ingredients and produce. The chefs use Nordic cooking methods to make food which represents Scandinavian culture, geography and history (Lonely Planet, 2021). One of Nordic Cuisine`s most famous restaurants is Noma, which is situated in Copenhagen. Noma is a two- Michelin-star restaurant, which in fact has been elected to the best restaurant in the world. The restaurant is perfect for tourists who love culinary experiences (Visit Denmark, 2021d).
Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark and has several popular tourist attractions. In the heart of the city, you find the Tivoli, which with more than four million visitors each year has become a popular point-of-interest for tourists. The Tivoli is much more than just an amusement park with carousels as it features beautiful parks, a food hall with 16 restaurants and several shops and cafes. Another popular attraction in Copenhagen is the Copenhagen Zoo with more than 4000 different animals (Visit Denmark, 2021e). The Royal Christiansborg, which is on one of
Denmark's many popular castles is also situated in Copenhagen - more precisely on the small island Slotsholmen. One part of Christiansborg castle arranges gala dinners for the Queen and is open for visitors, and the other part accommodates politicians and the supreme court. The most popular castle in Denmark is however situated in Fredriksborg. Frederiksborg Castle, surrounded by gardens and a lake, is full of national history, art and architecture (Visit Denmark, 2021f).
6.5.3. Current Destination Image studies of Denmark
Although there exists a limited amount of destination image studies of Denmark, a master thesis from Aalborg University from 2010 studies the destination image of Denmark and its effects on the Russian Outbound travel. The results of the study reports that Russians overall have very little information about Denmark, and that there is a lack of advertising and general information about Denmark. The study thus concludes that Russians have no particular destination image of Denmark (Saenko, 2010, p. 62).
With reference to the German research conducted in the University of Wurzburg as earlier mentioned in the current study, results reported that typical associations of people who had already visited Denmark was summer vacation, beach and Copenhagen. Those who had not been to Denmark more frequently answered neighbor, monarchy and cold. Overall, foreigners had a strong image of Denmark being a cozy family- and summer holiday destination. In addition, topics like sea, beach, sand, island and holiday were regularly mentioned. The study also indicates that contemporary culture, history and traditions in Denmark in fact are quite unknown territories in foreigners´ minds. The most frequent associations were: Copenhagen (27%), lego (10%), neighbor (10%), beach (9%) and holiday (8%). Further associations were:
North Sea (8%), sea (7%), royal family (7%), cold (6%) and mermaid (6%) (Schroödl, 2009, p.
68).
6.6. Finland
6.6.1. Tourism in Finland
According to UNTWO`s 2019 report Finland had an arrival of 3180 international tourists in 2018 (World Tourism organization, 2019). In 2017 Finland had 6,7 million overnight stays and an export value estimated to 4,4 billion Euro in 2017 (Business Finland, 2021). Finland is a round year destination with many overnight stays both summer and winter. In countries like the UK, Netherlands and France the majority of tourists travel to Finland during the winter season.
Tourists from Norway, Sweden and Denmark mainly travel to Finland during summer (Business Finland, 2021).
6.6.2. Finland as a destination
The combination of pure nature and urban scene makes Finland a year-round destination.
According to Visit Finland, extraordinary accommodation, sauna, skiing, northern lights, midnight sun, land of thousand lakes, world's largest archipelago, clean nature and sustainable lifestyle, organic local food, santa claus, moomins, culture and design, cool and urban are what Finland is known for (Visit Finland, 2021a).
Finland is often referred to as the “The Land of the thousand lakes” because of the 188 000 lakes that start in the south around Helsinki, and all the way up to Lapland (Visit Finland, 2021a). Great forests, baltic sea islands, arctic fells and blue lakes provide a perfect habitat for wild animals, and excursions and tours are offered where bears, wolves and wolverines can be spotted. Lake safaris where ringed seal and osprey can be seen (Visit Finland, 2021b). The Urho Kekkonen National park is a great place to hike if an active holiday is the preference (Visit Finland, 2021c). Northern lights, also called Aurora Borealis, are regarded as the most
spectacular lights show the world has to offer. In Finnish Lapland they can be seen 200 nights a year (Visit Finland, 2021a). This is up north in Finland, but it is also possible to sport the spectacular light show further south, but only if you go far away from city lights. Even though it is approximately only possible to spot from the south 20 nights a year. Another very interesting phenomena in the north is the midnight sun. In June and July, the midnight sun is the strongest, but the further north you go the more prominent it is (Visit Finland, 2021a).
Lapland is Finland's main ski area and has a six month long skiing season (Visit Finland, 2021a). The resort here has something for every level and also has other activities like dog sled rides, reindeer rides, snowmobiling and ice-fishing. Lapland is also the home of “The real Santa Claus”. Rovaniemi, is his hometown where he can be visited all year. This seems to be a big attraction for travelers with children. Here children can meet Santa Claus at his home, office and meet Rudolph the reindeer (Visit Finland, 2021a). The Finnish sauna plays a great part in the culture and heritage. It is estimated that there is one sauna per household (Visit Finland, 2021a). Sauna is an experience with many rituals and traditions, but the most important part is to relax and cleanse body and soul (Visit Finland, 2021a). According to Visit Finland and a study done in 2017, six main visitor segments that had already traveled to Finland were identified: Nature Wonder Hunters, Nature Explorers, Activity Enthusiasts, Comfort Seekers, City Breakers and Authentic Lifestyle Seekers (Business Finland, 2017).
6.6.3. Current Destination Image studies of Finland
In relation to the German study conducted at the University of Wurzburg, results state that students who have visited Finland associate the country with nature, Lapland, Helsinki and cultural peculiarities. Respondents who had never been to Finland most frequently mentioned cold, dark, education and Formula 1. The concepts of “sauna” and “Nokia” scored high in both of these groups together. Overall, the study reports that foreigners have strong associations of
Finland in terms of an excellent education system, and technology and innovation. In addition, perceptions like policitis, Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the shared border to Russia are also prominent. Finland`s image is also dominated by the perception of being a cold and snowy country. The most frequent associations were: sauna (24%), coldness (20%), Helsinki (18%), lakes (18%) and Nokia (12%). Further associations were: forest (9%), snow (8%) and PISA (8%) (Schroödl, 2009. p. 68).
6.7. Iceland
6.7.1. Tourism in Iceland
Iceland is a rather large island in the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Scotland and Norway as nearest neighboring countries. As the second largest island in Europe, followed by Great Britain, Iceland stretches across 40,000 square miles with a population of approximately 360,000 inhabitants (Visit Iceland, 2021a; Visit Iceland, 2021b).
Roughly 60% of these citizens live in and around the northernmost national capital in the world, namely Reykjavik. The territory of the island itself is characterized by a varied terrain including glaciated mountains, volcanic topography and uninhabited desert grounds (Johannesson &
Huijbens, 2010, p. 424).
Tourism in Iceland has in recent decades developed more rapidly, in comparison to global growth. Accordingly, tourism arrivals have multiplied and in fact expanded by 66% in the years between 2000 and 2008 (Johannesson & Huijbens, 2010, p. 419). In light of Iceland's history of foreign travelers, tourist arrivals were relatively slow prior to the mid 1980s. Thereafter the tourism has been thriving, especially considering a 56% increase in registered overnight hotel- stays by foreigners between 1997 and 2008 (Johannesson & Huijbens, 2010, p. 426). In general, tourism in Iceland has from time to time been dealing with typical challenges of island tourism,
being persistent patterns of seasonality in addition to high amounts of tourists at specific attractions - putting the fragile natural environment at risk. Tourism in Iceland is also highly dependent on air-transport. As a result of Icelandic airlines´ extensive route network and promotion of stopovers between both mainland Europe and North America, Iceland has been gaining access to a much greater number of potential visitors flying between these continents.
Ultimately, this has become a fundamental precondition of tourism development on the island (Johannesson & Huijbens, 2010, p. 427).
6.7.2. Iceland as a destination
Iceland is a country of major geological contrasts. Home to some of the world’s most active volcanoes, including some of the largest glaciers in Europe, Iceland is broadly known as “the land of fire and ice”. Long summer days consisting of nearly 24 hours of sun, in addition to short winter days with a few single hours of daylight, has led to the country also often being referred to as “the land of light and darkness” (Visit Iceland, 2021c). “With almost 80% of the country uninhabited, much of Iceland`s terrain consists of plateau, mountain peaks, and fertile lowlands” (Visit Iceland, 2021a). Overall, the landscape is mainly portrayed by deep fjords and glaciers, waterfalls, volcanoes, geysers, steaming lava fields and black sand beaches (Visit Iceland, 2021a).
Both lava fields and ice sheets cover an extensive amount of space on the island. In fact, more than 11% of Iceland consists of glaciers, in addition to 32 volcanic systems that have extended their lava far and wide (Reykjavik Cars, 2020). Iceland represents one of the youngest landmasses on earth and was formed as much as 25 million years ago. The existence of the island itself originates from a volcanic hotspot established by a fissure in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge - namely where the American and Eurasian tectonic plates meet (Visit Iceland, 2021a).
As volcanic activity is a fact of life in Iceland, its inhabitants have become accustomed to living with both the benefits and drawbacks of a dramatic natural environment. According to research, Iceland encounters, on average, a volcanic event every five years (Visit Iceland, 2021d). The last volcano to erupt on the island was Grimsvotn in 2011, which in fact brought disruption to air traffic in Northwestern Europe (BBC News, 2011; Visit Iceland, 2021a).
Driving the Golden Circle has become on the of the most popular and iconic trips to experience inside of Iceland. With Reykjavik as both the start and finish point, the circular tourist route will at just over 300 km display most of the island’s geography including volcanic craters, hotspots, lagoons, waterfalls and even a world heritage site - Thingvellir National Park (Reykjavik Cars, 2019; UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2021). The name Golden Circle derives from the word “Gullfoss”, which means Golden Falls in Icelandic. This is in fact considered as one of the leading attractions on the famous route, where massive amounts of water deluge 32 meters down into an enormous canyon (Reykjavik Cars, 2019; Reykjavik Cars, 2020).
Another stop along the Golden Circle is the Geysir Geothermal Area. Overlooking steam vents and boiling mud pools, tourists can at this point also experience the famous Strokkur - the geyser that flare up every few minutes. Iceland`s famous black-sand beaches has also, as earlier mentioned, become one of the main tourist attractions on the island. Among these is Diamond Beach consisting of black sand and chunks of glacial ice, and Reynisfjara where tightly packed hexagonal basalt columns has resulted in the beach gaining a lot of attention from popular media. The latter beach was in fact featured in the seventh season of the popular Game of Thrones series (Reykjavik Cars, 2020).
6.7.3. Current Destination Image studies of Iceland
While there are several destination image studies in the case of Iceland that do already exist online, they still approach the phenomena from different points of view. One of the articles analyzes a topic briefly mentioned above, namely the image of Iceland as a gateway destination.
The main point of discussion in the study is the islands geographic position as a stopover between European and North American continents, and namely how this effects its perceived image as a tourism destination (Lund, Loftsdottir & Leonard, 2016, p. 144).
Another study investigates two different matters within the concept, the first being the image tourists in Iceland during the summer months have of the country as a destination, and second:
whether or not positioning both Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland together in tourist markets as one area is achievable or advantageous. In light of the survey conducted for this study, results show that travelers´ strongest image perception of Iceland is its scenic nature and natural beauty. Additionally, the results suggest that Iceland, the faroe Islands and Greenland have quite different images in tourists´ minds. Ultimately the study concludes that although the three countries should not be positioned together, a working relationship in view of marketing activities and promotion of the area as a tourist region could be beneficial (Gudlaugsson &
Magnusson, 2015, p. 169).
Further, another study addresses the effect of a global banking crisis on the destination image of Iceland. In specific, the research study explains how tourism plays a bigger role on the economy of island destinations and why they accordingly are hit harder by global economic crisis - which in the long run can influence the image among foreign travelers. The main result of the survey was that the image of Iceland as a tourism destination in fact did not change notably in the minds of foreign travelers (Gudlaugsson & Eysteinsson, 2012). Finally, an
additional study explores the challenges and implications in relation to researching images of destinations in general - while briefly demonstrating images of Iceland for illustrative purposes only (Gren & Gunnarsdottir, 2008, p. 427). In relation to an analysis of information material on display conducted in Reykjavik`s tourist information centre, the study reveals the image of Iceland being described as both a peripheral-, cold- and ´different` destination (Gren &
Gunnarsdottir, 2008, p. 431).
7. METHODOLOGY
7.1. Research context
To determine foreigners' image of the Nordic countries as tourist destinations, online reviews were collected from one of the world`s largest travel sites - namely TripAdvisor. Guiding millions of tourists each year, the web site is in fact based on reviews from former visitors who post their experience and advice about destinations all over the world. Accordingly, TripAdvisor is highly trusted and credible in the minds of its users (TripAdvisor, 2021). The data was collected based on the following categories: attractions, outdoor activities and food and drinks and tours combined.
7.2. Data collection
In the first category, 30 different attractions were collected. For both “outdoor activities” and the category consisting of “food and drinks” and “tours”, 15 activities were selected on each.
The selection of these attractions and activities was taken on the basis of popularity characteristics and highest number of reviews. Furthermore, a specific number of online reviews were collected for each category. Prior to writing a review on TripAdvisor, travelers are required to rate their experience on a 5-point scale representing the following classifications:
terrible (1), poor (2), average (3), very good (4) and excellent (5). For each of the 30 attractions,
four reviews were chosen – essentially two rated “very good” or “excellent” and two rated
“poor” or “terrible”. An equivalent method was executed for the two remaining categories.
However, rather than four, six reviews were chosen for each of the 15 activities – three rated
“very good” or “excellent” and three rated “poor” or “terrible”. A convenience sampling technique was utilized with the intention of selecting the most describing and rich-in-content reviews. Hence why reviews rated as “average” also were chosen from time to time. Overall, a procedure incorporating the most convenient reviews was selected with the aim of acquiring a more complete picture of travelers´ image of Nordic countries. For each of the five countries, 300 reviews were collected, making a total of 1500 reviews. The reviews shared by tourists on TripAdvisor were kept in an Excel database, which included the review title, its rating and lastly the review content. Only English reviews were taken into account for the current research. As TripAdvisor excludes detailed demographic descriptions of its reviewers, the data did not incorporate travelers’ characteristics.
7.3. Methodology approach
When choosing a method, one must base the choice on the basis of what one wants to achieve a better understanding of (Gripsrud, Olsson & Silkoset, 2018. p. 46). Therefore, one should choose the method that is best adapted to the problem of the thesis. The three main categories in research design are exploratory, descriptive and causal design. Since there is little research in the chosen area and the phenomena in the thesis problem are therefore relatively unknown, it will be obvious to choose an exploratory research design. This will be appropriate because the purpose is to gain greater understanding and insight into tourists' perceptions of Nordic countries. A descriptive design may be more appropriate to use if this topic is to be researched further (Gripsrud et al., 2018, p. 46).
Tourists use tripadvisor to share their experience and perception of destinations and businesses around the world (Tripadvisor, 2017). We decided to use this information in our attempt to identify the destination image in the Nordic countries. By retrieving reviews on tripadvisor, and analyzing it in Leximancer, we will identify word-occurrences, patterns and in this way extract the main elements in the texts. This is a observational method where it is possible to collect primary data without making direct contact with the respondants (Gripsrud et al., 2018, p. 129).
The use of this method means that the concepts in the data collection are not systematically operationalized which means it is a possibility that we don’t share the same perceptions of words and concepts as the respondents (Gripsrud et al., 2018, p. 129).
Leximancer is a text analysis tool used to perform in-depth analysis of qualitative data (Leximancer, 2021). Using Leximancer, we have processed our qualitative data in a quantitative way to more systematically and skillfully not only understand, but also measure the phenomenon (Gripsrud et al., 2018, p. 129). With this tool you will be able to explore and visualize the content of text and in this way identify key concepts that recur. This is a method that makes data and analysis work much easier and faster. Instead of going through qualitative data manually, the program does it for us in seconds. This will therefore be a competent and systematic way of reviewing all data retrieved from Tripadvisor (Gripsrud et al., 2018, p. 129).
Leximancer identifies correlations between themes and related frequencies. The program uses the observations to create a "concept map." The concept map presents main themes and concepts among collected data, and further the connection between them. We have used this information to try to identify the destination image in the Nordic countries.
With reference to the following result section of the current study, reviews exemplified are presented in line with the Apa6- and Apa7 reference adviser. Words within the quotations are
therefore emphasized in italics, followed by “emphasis added” in square brackets (American Psychological Association, 2019, p. 275). This is to highlight and more easily recognize the individual concepts Leximancer identified as the most frequent word-patterns among travelers on TripAdvisor. In addition, ellipses have also been used in accordance with Apa6 to omit non essential content to the concepts at issue (Lee, 2015). The reviews exemplified are cited with hyperlinks with the intention of creating a more accessible admittance to the original source of information. In relation to source reference in the literature section of the current study, letters (e.g. Visit Norway, 2021a) have been applied to distinguish between an authors´ several publications within the same year.
8. RESULTS
This section of the study presents the findings to its two main objectives. In light of the data collected and further analyzed in Leximancer, the following affirms the most prominent themes and key concepts that reoccured amongst travellers´ online reviews about Nordic countries.
8.1. Norway
The content analyses provided by the Leximancer program disclosed the existence of seven concepts in travellers´ online descriptions of Norway as a destination (Figure 1): “place”
(hits=254), “guide” (hits=201), “interesting” (hits=145), “hike”
(hits=67), “shops” (hits= 28), “camping” (hits= 15) and “ferry”
(hits=9).
8.1.1. General description of foreigners´ experiences
Place. The most repetitive theme among the reviews about Norway
is place. The theme includes concepts like “hotel”, “park”, “food”, “friendly”, “restaurant”,
Figure 1: Concept map of Norway
“fee”, and “children''. One example of a review that deals with the concept of food reads as follows:
This food [emphasis added] hall is a great stop if you ve been strolling the paths along The Akerselva, visiting the funky boutiques & vintage shops in Grünerlokka, or you went to a show at the Dancehus or Vulkan Arena. Great to choose between lots of restaurants, both casual market-style & sitdown, to choose from here, & within a block (TripAdvisor, 2020).
Another traveler shared online:
Buildings dating back as old as early 1700, a cobble stone street walked on for centuries, this place [emphasis added] is a trip back in time with its perfectly preserved homes.
Several small parks [emphasis added] and gardens to meet friendly [emphasis added]
cats and people watch (TripAdvisor, 2020).
A third tourist reported,
So it was midnight sun and we were told that the thing to do was go up the gondola to see it. But too cold up there to linger and besides view from roof bar of hotel [emphasis added] was just as good (TripAdvisor, 2017).
A fourth reviewer stated, “We had the best trip doing the Arctic Adventure in Tromso, people were friendly [emphasis added], the huskies were so well looked after and beautiful, the sledding was stunning. The Orca sightings in Skjervøy was absolutely breathtaking and very emotional” (TripAdvisor, 2019).
Guide. The theme of guide encompasses the concepts “amazing”, “Norway” and “recommend”,
“excursion” and “fjord”. One traveler stated, “The experience was amazing! [emphasis added]
Our tour guide Max was very friendly and knowledgeable, he put a lot of effort to take pictures of everyone with his professional camera and to inform us about the lights and Tromso”
(TripsAdvisor, 2020). A second reviewer expressed, “The owners and guides [emphasis added]
were really friendly and open to questions. I would recommend [emphasis added] this day-trip to anyone who visits Tromsø” (TripAdvisor, 2021). A further visitor wrote: “We did this excursion [emphasis added] after listening to our expedition team leader on our Hurtigruten cruise and being impressed by his description. The trip started with a coach ride of about half an hour” (TripAdvisor, 2018).
A fourth traveler described the experience as follows: “Only saw the part of the fjord [emphasis added] around Oslo itself and I didn't find it very impressive. It could be, however, that the more beautiful parts are further down the stream and it takes a boat to discover them”
(TripAdvisor, 2017). Another further traveler wrote: “We (my daughter and I) enjoyed a lovely morning cruise on the Lysefjord [emphasis added]. We were blessed with good weather so we re able to stand on deck and drink in the views, including the iconic Pulpit Rock (Preikestolen)”
(TripAdvisor, 2019).
Interesting. The theme of interesting introduce concepts like “museum”, “Norwegian”,
“history”, “expensive” and “activities''. A typical review concerning the prices in Norway reads as follows: “Great mountains for skiing, but simply way too expensive [emphasis added]. you can find many other destinations with better value for your money” (TripAdvisor, 2016). An additional visitor wrote, “Once there is a great museum [emphasis added], I wasn't overly interested before going but loved going to the top of the ski jump and seeing the view over Oslo.
Interesting [emphasis added] museum [emphasis added] with lots of historical [emphasis added] ski related items” (TripAdvisor, 2020). Another further review reads as follows:
It was a nice day outside, and while on a rainy day a bit of cover with a few activities [emphasis added] is enough to stave off the worst of the day, it is - after all - a museum about drilling for oil. One of the exhibits is "a collection of various types of drill bits””
(TripAdvisor, 2016).
Hike. The theme of hike incorporate the concepts “mountain” and “island”. A tourist wrote,
“Beautiful landscape and a nice boat trip out to the island [emphasis added]. Our guide was the owners and did his job very well” (TripAdvisor, 2017). A second visitor shared, “It is something amazing to watch this wonders from nature. Watching the sea conquer the mountains [emphasis added] it is something amazing than the beautiful scenery it creates is unbelievable extraordinary” (TripAdvisor, 2020).
Shops. The theme of shops comprise the concepts of “houses” and “castle”. A traveler posted,
“Strolled over this way after a short walk from our hotel (10 minutes from Oslo Central Station).
While these are just two streets with houses [emphasis added] on them, they are historical (over 200 years old) and contain beautiful” (TripAdvisor, 2017). Another tourist stated online, “Also another area about how the castle [emphasis added] in later times had been used as a prison.
The castle [emphasis added] looked good but unfortunately on our visit until May 2021 it was closed due to maintenance” (TripAdvisor, 2020). A third reviewer on TripAdvisor wrote,
“Besides the fact that there were hoards of tourists here, the wooden buildings consist of tourist shops [emphasis added]. There were some nice quality ones but most were the typical trolls and sweater places” (TripAdvisor, 2017)
Camping. “Train” is the only concept that includes in the theme of camping. A review reads as follows: “Supposedly related to some mythical tale! We took bikes with us on train [emphasis added] and cycled back down the well signposted and popular old navvies road” (TripAdvisor, 2020).
Ferry. This theme doesn’t incorporate any concepts in particular. However, one visitor reported, “We caught the fast ferry [emphasis added] from Tromso to Lynses return which took about 2 hours and 130NOK per person return. Ferry [emphasis added] departs morning and evening” (TripAdvisor, 2015).
Figure 2 and Figure 3 demonstrates the most common concepts amongst foreigners perceptions of Norway, divided into favourable and unfavourable tables. For each concept in particular, the analysis provides insight into the likelihood of co-occurrence.
Figure 2: Favorable concepts Norway Figure 3: Unfavorable concepts
Norway
8.2. Sweden
The content analyses provided by the Leximancer program disclosed the existence of seven concepts in travellers´ online descriptions of Sweden as a destination (Figure 4): “place”(hits=430), “tour” (hits=252), “history”
(hits=123), “park” (hits=115), “beach” (hits=40), “town”
(hits=24) and “cathedral” (hits=2).
8.2.1. General description of foreigners´ experiences Place. The most frequent theme amongst Sweden`s reviews is
place. The theme includes concepts like “nice”, “beautiful”, “city”, “people”, “restaurant”,
“view”, “lovely”, “animals” and “ski”. A traveler shared the following experience: “Cute little square with many bars and restaurants [emphasis added] - lovely place [emphasis added] to chill with friends during summer and cozy in winter … Pronto caffe is serving the best variety of New york style cheesecakes” (TripAdvisor, 2019).
A second visitor wrote, “Big zoo which is easy to move around in. Lots of different animals [emphasis added] and nice [emphasis added] surroundings” (TripAdvisor, 2017). Another tourist stated, “People [emphasis added] of multiple ability levels can enjoy the park either by hiking, nature walk, picnicking, camping, etc.3. The scenery is beautiful [emphasis added] and very tranquil” (TripAdvisor, 2017). A fourth reviewer reported, “Slopes were well prepared and I think that people [emphasis added] in general was paying attention in the slopes. Overall the skiing [emphasis added] experience was great and we really appreciated Ken and Rebecca”
(TripAdvisor, 2019). Lastly, a further traveler expressed “The Walking Tour with Arturo through Stockholms Gamla Stan was one of the highlights of our stay! A great introduction to
Figure 4: Concept map of Sweden
the city [emphasis added] and its history … interaction that made it unique” (TripAdvisor, 2020).
Tour. This theme encompasses concepts such as “guide”, “food”, “night”, “friendly”, “perfect”,
“fun”, “recommend” and “Swedish”. A tourists` experience reads as follows:
We went to Åre on a company trip and booked five activities with Explore åre (snowboard night tour [emphasis added], largest waterfall in Sweden [emphasis added], dogsledding, feed the reindeer and icefishing). Our guide [emphasis added] Bea was very skilled and friendly [emphasis added] and out team had a very good time!
(TripAdvisor, 2020).
A second traveler stated, “The pace was perfect [emphasis added] for us. The Vasa Museum is really a must see & a great spot to end the tour” [emphasis added] (TripAdvisor, 2020). Another tourist shared, “We had a wonderful Nordic Experience Food Tour [emphasis added] with Food Tours Stockholm and Ana as our guide [emphasis added]. It was a great way to see new parts of the city, different kinds of venues, and taste all kinds of food [emphasis added]
(TripAdvisor, 2019). A further reviewer described the experience as “Joel was a fun guide [emphasis added]. The tour [emphasis added] was well organized, well designed with great graphics and a fun interactive ending with cosmopolitan” (TripAdvisor, 2019). Lastly a visitor reported:
An amazing experience that I will never forget, everything was perfect [emphasis added]: the food [emphasis added] was amazing, the explanations of the guide [emphasis added], the fire to keep us warm and of course the Aurora spot where we saw amazing northern lights!! I recommend [emphasis added] it 100% it’s really worth it, the best experience you could have in Abisko (Tripadvisor, 2021).
History. The theme of history comprises the concepts of “museum”, “walking”, “recommend”
and “city”. A traveler wrote, “A park for all ages,this was a fantastic place. It houses the Gothenburg natural history museum [emphasis added], it has a small zoo,cafes,restaurants,but if you just want a picnic,there is plenty of open space for that!” (TripAdvisor, 2020). A second visitor reported:
The tour gave us an opportunity to walk [emphasis added] around and learn some history [emphasis added] and explore a few places that I don't think that we would have found on our own. Our tour guide was delightful and super helpful and even gave us some great recommendation of places that we had to see with our remaining time in Stockholm (TripAdvisor, 2019).
Park. The theme of park incorporates concepts like “nature”, “center” and “information”. A tourist described the experience as follows: “A beautiful park [emphasis added] above the center [emphasis added] of historic downtown. A large park [emphasis added] with open green spaces, gardens, water features, sculptures and the historic Karnan tower” (TripAdvisor, 2013).
Another reviewer expressed, “The gardens are a joy: colourful, well-tended, magic. The manor is a rich source of information [emphasis added] about the royal couple of Oskar II and Sofie, with some very interesting exhibits and photos” (TripAdvisor, 2018). A further traveler stated,
“Driving down to fyren Långe Jan was one of our favourite excisions on land. It sits on Ottenby Nature [emphasis added] reserve, a beautiful nature [emphasis added] reserve with various birds and seals” (TripAdvisor, 2020).
Beach. The theme of beach does not include any concepts in particular. However, a review reads as follows: “Tylosand is a nice beach [emphasis added]. The neighborhood is an interesting place to visit and see how is the life in this place” (TripAdvisor, 2014). A second
tourist wrote, “Top time beach [emphasis added] in Sweden. It`s a long beautiful beach with restaurants, walking paths, mini golf and golf close by” (TripAdvisor, 2019).
Town. The theme of town does not encompass any specific concepts. Nonetheless, a visitor described the following experience:
My wife and I made the last cruise of the season from Stockholm to Goteborg on the M/S Diana, and would highly recommend this trip for anyone wanting to cruise through the country of Sweden, with a great crew, outstanding food, beautiful scenery, and time to walk and see towns [emphasis added] along the way. This was a trip of a lifetime, and we can't say enough good things about the entire experience (TripAdvisor, 2019).
Cathedral. The theme of cathedral also does not introduce any concepts in specific. Yet, a traveler shared:
Visby is a lovely city, almost entirely surrounded by a medieval wall and accompanying towers that are in remarkably good condition. Take your time and you will see some really quaint houses and cathedrals [emphasis added] &churches as you wander around the place (TripAdvisor, 2021).
Expensive. “Expensive” is a separate theme that is not connected to any concepts or other themes in particular. Even so, a typical review concerning the prices in Sweden reads as follows: