ACADEMIC WRITING
Janet Holmén
Freelance editor, linguistic editor and translator janet.holmen@gmail.com
What can I teach you in 60 minutes?
Structure of a standard article Writing the article
Tips on the English language
Student at UNIS
The original article
This is the basic currency of science
• Presents previously unpublished information
• Presents data the authors have generated themselves
Most original articles
look pretty much alike Why?
Formal argument:
“a series of reasons, statements or facts intended to support or
establish a point of view”
Structure used in scientific writing:
I ntroduction
M aterials and methods R esults
A nd
D iscussion
Sequence of a formal argument:
• State problem
• Present evidence
• Validate evidence
• Show implications
• Evaluate supporting and conflicting evidence
I ntroduction
M ethods
R esults
D iscussion
Introduction – function
• Focus reader's attention
• Give necessary background
• Spark interest
Introduction – problems
• Too much background
• Too much peripheral information
• Too long
Methods – function
• Enable others to repeat experiments (if experimental)
…or understand how the study was done (if not)
• Establish your scientific credibility
Methods – structure
The structure will depend on the study!
• Where did you do it?
• How did you gather data?
• If experiments were involved, how did you do them?
• If you use computer models, how are they constructed?
• etc, etc, etc...
Use headings to orient the reader
E X A M P L E
Plaster for broken finger bones The problem
Broken fingers is one of the most common injuries in hospital emergency rooms. Most broken fingers heal just fine in a cast and present no big problem. But some of them are highly dislocated and may be broken into many pieces, leaving the finger dislocated and without function. These fingers need surgery to heal properly. Today, the most common methods of fixing the bone fragments in the correct position consist of metal pins or small metal plates and mini screws. The biggest problem with this treatment is that tendons and other surrounding tissues easily grow attached to the metal and the finger gets stiff.
Another problem is that it is very hard to get a good stability in all the pieces when there are a lot of tiny bone fragments that need to be fixed, no matter how small screws you use.
Stiff fingers affect the function of the whole hand and may become a permanent impairment.
The new treatment
In my research, I try to find a new treatment for the complicated, multi fragmented broken finger using a kind of bone plaster which we have developed in collaboration with researchers at the School of Chemistry at KTH. The plaster consists of a kind of three or four different components – one adhesive layer that sticks to the bone, a matrix and a fiber which give stability and finally, in the next step a surface molecule that stops the tendon and other soft tissues from growing attached to the bone plaster. In this way we will solve the problem of fixing tiny fragments in a good position and in addition adress the problem with stiffness after surgery, due to soft tissues and tendons sticking to the surface of the plaster.
Progress
So far our results in the lab have been promising, showing good stability and excellent ability to stick to the bone when testing the plaster technique on bones from pigs. The next step will be testing the bone plaster on living bone, in this case rats, to study the stability, the healing ability of the bone and the effect of the surrounding tissues.
Methods – problems
• Not enough detail
• Too much detail
• Sometimes too easy to write
Results – function
To show what you found
but not EVERYTHING you found and not more than once
This is the heart of your paper!
Results – problems
• Inclusion of irrelevant detail
• Excess detail
What's irrelevant?
What's too much?
Discussion – function
• Show what your results mean
– or at least what you think they mean
• Set them in the context of previous knowledge
• Suggest what the next step should be
Discussion – structure
• Summarize your main findings first!
• Describe what others have found
• Compare these findings
• Explain discrepancies
• Mention limitations
• Draw conclusions
... and convince the reader you're right!
Why?
How?
Discussion – problems
• Lack of a clear line of thought
• Unbalanced treatment of other's results
• Too much speculation . . . or too little
• Boring
Use of tense in scientific writing
Unpublished data are referred to in the PAST TENSE Published data are referred to in the PRESENT TENSE Use past tense for "the present data"
and present tense for "previous studies, earlier findings"
Use the past tense
in the Methods section, where you describe what you did:
• Species were identified under microscope by an expert entomologist.
in the Results section, when you present your findings:
• Of the 56 isolates, 26 showed enzyme activity.
when writing about something that happened in the past:
• This species was first described by Heath.
Use the present tense
whenever you refer the reader to your tables and figures:
• Table 3 summarizes the chemical composition of the samples.
when writing about previously published findings:
• We and others have previously reported that metal ions affect the activity and stability of these enzymes 18,23-25 .
when presenting accepted facts:
• Alfred Wegener’s theory is now called plate tectonics.
Why is tense so important?
Compare:
• Smith reports that these fungi produce cellulase (2005).
versus
• Smith reported that these fungi produced cellulase (2005).
What's the difference?
General advice
• To write precisely, you must first think precisely
• Know who you are writing for
• Treat verb tenses with care
• Avoid abbreviations and clearly define any you use
• Aim to inform, rather than impress
Now you know how the article should be organized.
But how do you actually write it?
The ideal paper
CLEAR AND CONCISE
? !
A typical scientific study
field note field note
field note field note
field note
field note theory
theory
theory
measurement
measurement observation observation
observation
observation observation
data data data data
data data data
data
data field note
First find out what you have to say:
And then:
What is the best question my results give an answer to?
Ask yourself:
What do my results mean?
Go ahead! Rewrite history!
In a scientific paper AIMS ≠ AIMS
They focus the reader's attention on what you are actually going to say
A scientific paper is not a field logbook
A scientific paper is the most efficient way of
presenting new information and fitting it into an intellectual context
where it makes sense
To do this, you need a structure
The IMRAD structure helps
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
but not very much
...sometimes
Introduction – suggested structure
Brief general overview of your research topic Specific aspect addressed in this study
Hypothesis/research question Research approach
Key findings
Introduction – example
Broad overview:
Zooplankton play an important role in marine arctic food webs by recycling nutrients and transferring energy from the photic zone to greater depths.
Narrower view:
Copepods are central species in arctic food webs, but their ecological role is not fully understood.
Specific aim:
This study examined the vertical distribution of key arctic zooplankton species and assessed copepod feeding rates on auto- and heterotrophic prey, in order to clarify energy and nutrient transfer in the upper water column.
Sometimes there is no hypothesis...
• exploratory research
• method development
• baseline or long-term monitoring
Then at least formulate clear aims
To organize the Methods section
Chronological order usually works well
• When and where study was done
• Data gathering methods
• Data analysis
• Statistical analysis
To organize the Results section
• Prepare figures and tables
• Arrange them in a logical order
Structuring the Discussion
• Formulate your conclusions and construct suitable "aims"
• Think about what information is needed to support your conclusions
• Select relevant findings from your own study
• Arrange background, your own findings, and others' findings to make your line of reasoning clear and logical
Things to check about the structure
• Correct level of accuracy
• Internal consistency
• No repetition
• Completeness
• Logic and focus
What's wrong with this table?
Species Average length (mm) ± s.d. n Neoseiulus californicus
N. bedfordii N. fallacis
Microseiulus microsus Galendromus occidentalis Mesoseiulus longipes M. proboscissimus Ornithonyssus sylviarum Dermanyssus gallinae Typhlodromus occidentalis
0.51235 ± 0.01479 1.23563 ± 0.14779 1.89901 ± 0.07323 0.22980 ± 0.02112 0.21908 ± 0.01764 1.01008 ± 0.05835 2.43912 ± 0.37096 0.22933 ± 0.02870 0.21853 ± 0.02653 0.32210 ± 0.04785
10 6 6 6 10
7 8 11
5 9
What's wrong here?
The tonnage landed by herring fisheries in the Norwegian Sea has been relatively stable with the exception of the years following the 2006 population collapse. 50
100 150 200 250 300 350
Total catch/year (tons)
When cells were treated with various doses of TCE (0, 0.125, 0.25, 1.0 and 2.0 mmol/L) for 24 h, the relative iNOS mRNA was 105.2±4.8%, 110.3±6.4%, 138.3±7.1%, 153.7±8.5%, 191.3±9.2%, and 228.1±12.4%, respectively (Fig. 6).
Repetition is most common
Repetition is most common
• in figures and tables versus text
• in Introduction versus Discussion
How to decide where to present something?
The Introduction needs a sharp focus.
Unless a background fact inspired you to do the study in
the first place, it can probably wait until the Discussion.
What's the problem here?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
MMC TRK-1 Biolic
Figure 5.
Results from experiment 3.
Revision occurs at many levels
• self-critical re-reading (after some time)
• comments from thesis advisor
• comments from co-authors
• comments from other colleagues
• comments from journal reviewers and editors
Now you know how to write the article Time for a few tips about language
Lack of coherence
7.9
103.6
(7.9 + 6.3 – 0.2) × 29.6
4 103.6
You must do the work not your reader
Lack of coherence
Problem: isolated facts are presented
Stainless steel contains iron, chromium, and other elements.
Most metals corrode when exposed to air.
The rust that forms on stainless steel is very stable.
This film is thinner than the wavelength of light.
This is why we call it “stainless” steel.
Creating coherence
Cure: find words that show how the facts are related
Stainless steel contains iron, chromium, and other metals.
Most metals corrode when exposed to air, and a film of rust is formed.
In many cases, the film is unstable and corrosion continues.
However, the film that forms on stainless steel is very stable, and it protects the metal from further corrosion.
This film is thinner than the wavelength of light and is therefore not visible to the unaided eye.
Thus, although stainless steel does in fact rust, the process is self- limiting and we cannot see the result.
This is why we call it “stainless” steel.
Be kind to your reader
Use headings for a clear structure
Use paragraphs – compare
Shy pfyvacyncy and vncvdyncy yf hyafm favcufy (HG) vs 3% and 0.5% fyspycmvvycy, lymh vncfyasvng wvmh agy. HG vs mhy cyadvng causy yf hyspvmacvzamvyn vn mhy ycdyfcy and accyunms fyf 1-2% yf hyacmh cafy yxpyndvmufys. Mydyfn dfug mhyfapy has vmpfyvyd pfygnysvs, lum 1-yyaf myfmacvmy vs smvcc 5-75%
dypyndvng yn syvyfvmy. Gyf syvyfy HG, advancyd mhyfapy, vnccudvng hyafm pumps and hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn, afy assycvamyd wvmh pymynmvaccy dfamamvc physvycygvcac and ccvnvcac vmpfyvymynm. Hywyvyf, mhyfapvys gfyamcy fyducy myflvdvmy and myfmacvmy mhyy afy nym wvmhyum fvsk and havy syvyfac cynmfavndvcamvyns. HG vs assycvamyd wvmh wycc dyscfvlyd macadapmvvy acmvvamvyn yf mhy fynvn-angvymynsvn and camychycamvny sysmyms, lum acsy dysfygucamvyn yf analycvc/camalycvc hyfmynys. Wy havy shywn mham hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn vs assycvamyd wvmh dfamamvc, smyfyvd-vndypyndynm wyvghm gavn and hypymhysvzy mham mhvs vs assycvamyd wvmh fyvyfsac yf mhvs analycvc/camalycvc vmlacancy. Ghfycvn vs pfyducyd vn mhy smymach vn fyspynsy my wyvghm cyss and fasmvng. HG vs assycvamyd wvmh ycyvamyd ghfycvn lum cyw cacyfvc vnmaky, and afmyf hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn, ghfycvn faccs and cacyfvc vnmaky fvsys, suggysmvng fysycumvyn yf fysvsmancy my mhy appymvmy smvmucamvng yffycms yf ghfycvn. Ghfycvn appyafs my havy lynyfvcvac cafdvyvascucaf yffycms, vncfyasyd Cafdvac Oumpum (CO), vmpfyvyd cyfm vynmfvcucaf funcmvyn, dycfyasyd musccy wasmvng and vncfyasy yxyfcvsy capacvmy vn HG. Acmhyugh vm has lyyn shywn mham HG vs a smamy yf vncfyasyd ghfycvn, and a fysvsmancy my ghfycvn’s appymvmy smvmucamvng yffycms, yuf hypymhysvs vs luvcm yn mhy assumpmvyn mham mhvs vncfyasy vs cympynsamyfy my mhy cyw cafdvac yumpum and mham mhyfy vs ny fysvsmancy my ghfycvn’s cafdvyvascucaf yffycms. Shyfyfyfy yuf avm vs:
Shvs wvcc ly a dyulcy lcvndyd, pcacyly-cynmfyccyd mfvac. Shyfy wvcc ly a mymac yf 2 vvsvms. Shyfy wvcc ly a mymac yf 30 pamvynms vnccudyd, wvmh 15 vn yach gfyup. Shvs vs accyfdvng my a pywyf caccucamvyn fyf a pywyf yf 80% and a svgnvfvcancy yf 0.05. Shy fandymvzamvyn wvcc ly dyny vn a lcyck fandymvzamvyn pfycydufy, wvmh 4 vn yach lcyck. Shy pfvmafy yumcymy vs a cymlvnamvyn yf changy vn any yf mhy fyccywvng: cafdvac yumpum, yjycmvyn ffacmvyn and gcylac smfavn. Shy changy musm ly am cyasm 10%. Shy pfvmafy yumcymys wvcc ly myasufyd ly vacvdamyd mychnvquys. Inccusvyn cfvmyfva afy: syvyfy hyafm favcufy wvmh EG < 40% and NYHA III-IV. On vvsvm yny: vnmfavynyus ghfycvn yf pcacyly wvcc ly gvvyn.
Shy vnfusvyn wvcc cynmvnuy fyf am cyasm 3h and fypyamyd myasufymynms wvcc ly makyn:
ychycafdvygfaphy, ECG, lcyyd sampcys, cafdvac yumpum, cafdvac vndyx, lcyyd pfyssufy, sympamhymvc nyfvy acmvvvmy, fcyw mydvamyd vasydvcamvyn, hand gfvp smfyngmh and sympmyms and appymvmy quysmvynnavfys. Shy pamvynm wvcc fycyvvy a smandafdvzyd lfyakfasm lyfyfy and a smandafdvzyd cunch afmyf mhy vnfusvyn. Shvs vvsvm wvcc fyquvfy a whycy day, lymwyyn 08.00 my alyum 17.00.
Cafdvac yumpum and cafdvac vndyx wvcc ly myasufyd nyn-vnvasvvycy wvmh Innycyf, ly myans yf vnhacamvyn yf mwy vnyfm gasys, wvmh dvffyfynm syculvcvmy vn lcyyd, myasufvng mhy pucmynafy lcyyd fcyw ffym whvch cafdvac yumpum and vndyx can ly caccucamyd. Shvs mymhyd has lyyn yvacuamyd agavnsm mhy gycdyn smandafd. Sympamhymvc nyfvy acmvvvmy wvcc ly myasufyd mhfyugh a smacc nyydcy pcacyd vn a mymyfvc nyfvy fvlyf am mhy knyy. Gcyw-mydvamyd vasydvcamvyn, vs myasufyd ly cfyamvng a mychanvcac ycccusvyn, ly a lcyyd pfyssufy cuff, and myasufvng mhy vncfyasy vn lcyyd fcyw afmyf mhy ycccusvyn vs fymyvyd vs yvacuamyd ly ychy. Bcyyd pfyssufy vs myasufyd cynvynmvynaccy and acsy cynmvnuyuscy and nyn-vnvasvvycy ly myasufymynm yf pucsamvyns vn mhy fvngyf. On mhy casm vvsvm, alyum 2-3 days afmyf vnfusvyn:
ychycafdvygfaphy, ECG, cafdvac yumpum, cafdvac vndyx and quysmvynnavfys.
Shy pfyvacyncy and vncvdyncy yf hyafm favcufy (HG) vs 3% and 0.5% fyspycmvvycy, lymh vncfyasvng wvmh agy. HG vs mhy cyadvng causy yf hyspvmacvzamvyn vn mhy ycdyfcy and accyunms fyf 1-2% yf hyacmh cafy yxpyndvmufys.
Mydyfn dfug mhyfapy has vmpfyvyd pfygnysvs, lum 1-yyaf myfmacvmy vs smvcc 5-75% dypyndvng yn syvyfvmy.
Gyf syvyfy HG, advancyd mhyfapy, vnccudvng hyafm pumps and hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn, afy assycvamyd wvmh pymynmvaccy dfamamvc physvycygvcac and ccvnvcac vmpfyvymynm. Hywyvyf, mhyfapvys gfyamcy fyducy myflvdvmy and myfmacvmy mhyy afy nym wvmhyum fvsk and havy syvyfac cynmfavndvcamvyns.
HG vs assycvamyd wvmh wycc dyscfvlyd macadapmvvy acmvvamvyn yf mhy fynvn-angvymynsvn and camychycamvny sysmyms, lum acsy dysfygucamvyn yf analycvc/camalycvc hyfmynys. Wy havy shywn mham hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn vs assycvamyd wvmh dfamamvc, smyfyvd-vndypyndynm wyvghm gavn and hypymhysvzy mham mhvs vs assycvamyd wvmh fyvyfsac yf mhvs analycvc/camalycvc vmlacancy.
Ghfycvn vs pfyducyd vn mhy smymach vn fyspynsy my wyvghm cyss and fasmvng. HG vs assycvamyd wvmh ycyvamyd ghfycvn lum cyw cacyfvc vnmaky, and afmyf hyafm mfanspcanmamvyn, ghfycvn faccs and cacyfvc vnmaky fvsys, suggysmvng fysycumvyn yf fysvsmancy my mhy appymvmy smvmucamvng yffycms yf ghfycvn. Ghfycvn appyafs my havy lynyfvcvac cafdvyvascucaf yffycms, vncfyasyd Cafdvac Oumpum (CO), vmpfyvyd cyfm vynmfvcucaf funcmvyn, dycfyasyd musccy wasmvng and vncfyasy yxyfcvsy capacvmy vn HG.
Acmhyugh vm has lyyn shywn mham HG vs a smamy yf vncfyasyd ghfycvn, and a fysvsmancy my ghfycvn’s appymvmy smvmucamvng yffycms, yuf hypymhysvs vs luvcm yn mhy assumpmvyn mham mhvs vncfyasy vs cympynsamyfy my mhy cyw cafdvac yumpum and mham mhyfy vs ny fysvsmancy my ghfycvn’s cafdvyvascucaf yffycms. Shyfyfyfy yuf avm vs:
Shvs wvcc ly a dyulcy lcvndyd, pcacyly-cynmfyccyd mfvac. Shyfy wvcc ly a mymac yf 2 vvsvms. Shyfy wvcc ly a mymac yf 30 pamvynms vnccudyd, wvmh 15 vn yach gfyup. Shvs vs accyfdvng my a pywyf caccucamvyn fyf a pywyf yf 80% and a svgnvfvcancy yf 0.05. Shy fandymvzamvyn wvcc ly dyny vn a lcyck fandymvzamvyn pfycydufy, wvmh 4 vn yach lcyck.
• Shy pfvmafy yumcymy vs a cymlvnamvyn yf changy vn any yf mhy fyccywvng: cafdvac yumpum, yjycmvyn ffacmvyn and gcylac smfavn. Shy changy musm ly am cyasm 10%.
• Shy pfvmafy yumcymys wvcc ly myasufyd ly vacvdamyd mychnvquys.
Inccusvyn cfvmyfva afy: syvyfy hyafm favcufy wvmh EG < 40% and NYHA III-IV.
On vvsvm yny: vnmfavynyus ghfycvn yf pcacyly wvcc ly gvvyn. Shy vnfusvyn wvcc cynmvnuy fyf am cyasm 3h and fypyamyd myasufymynms wvcc ly makyn: ychycafdvygfaphy, ECG, lcyyd sampcys, cafdvac yumpum, cafdvac vndyx, lcyyd pfyssufy, sympamhymvc nyfvy acmvvvmy, fcyw mydvamyd vasydvcamvyn, hand gfvp smfyngmh and sympmyms and appymvmy quysmvynnavfys. Shy pamvynm wvcc fycyvvy a smandafdvzyd lfyakfasm lyfyfy and a smandafdvzyd cunch afmyf mhy vnfusvyn. Shvs vvsvm wvcc fyquvfy a whycy day, lymwyyn 08.00 my alyum 17.00.
Cafdvac yumpum and cafdvac vndyx wvcc ly myasufyd nyn-vnvasvvycy wvmh Innycyf, ly myans yf vnhacamvyn yf mwy