ȋȌ
PhDCandidate:MariaRøhnebæk, TIK,UniversityofOslo
© Maria Røhnebæk, 2014
Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Oslo No. 452
ISSN 1504-3991
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Til min far, Nils Røhnebæk (1939-2009)
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThisȱPhDȱprojectȱhasȱinvolvedȱanxiety,ȱstress,ȱcuriosity,ȱjoyȱandȱ excitement.ȱHowever,ȱdespiteȱtheȱupsȱandȱdowns,ȱitȱhasȱfirstȱandȱ foremostȱbeenȱaȱprivilegeȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱdesignȱandȱconductȱmyȱownȱ researchȱproject.ȱAtȱthisȱpoint,ȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱjourney,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱ toȱexpressȱmyȱgratitudeȱtoȱallȱtheȱpeopleȱthatȱhaveȱenabledȱmeȱtoȱ completeȱthisȱendeavour.ȱȱ
IȱwouldȱfirstȱandȱforemostȱlikeȱtoȱthankȱtheȱNAVȱemployeesȱthatȱ includedȱmeȱinȱtheirȱdailyȱworkȱinȱspiteȱofȱaȱbusyȱschedule.ȱIȱdoȱnotȱ useȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱofficeȱhere,ȱbutȱyouȱknowȱwhoȱyouȱare.ȱIȱamȱgladȱ IȱgotȱtoȱknowȱyouȱandȱIȱappreciateȱtheȱwayȱyouȱwelcomedȱandȱ enlightenedȱme.ȱIȱhopeȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱableȱtoȱadequatelyȱcaptureȱtheȱ characteristicsȱofȱyourȱworkȱenvironment.ȱȱ
Second,ȱthankȱyouȱtoȱLillehammerȱUniversityȱCollegeȱforȱtakingȱmeȱ onȱboardȱandȱforȱgrantingȱmeȱtheȱPhDȬscholarship.ȱȱMyȱ
appreciationsȱareȱparticularlyȱdirectedȱtoȱTheȱCentreȱforȱInnovationȱ inȱServicesȱ(CIS).ȱInteractionsȱwithȱfellowȱPhDȬstudentsȱandȱotherȱ colleaguesȱatȱtheȱcentreȱhaveȱbeenȱbothȱpersonallyȱandȱacademicallyȱ enriching.ȱ
IȱhadȱtheȱprivilegeȱofȱbeingȱsupervisedȱbyȱProfessorȱAnneȱMarieȱBergȱ atȱCISȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱmyȱresearch.ȱȱIȱfoundȱthatȱherȱinvolvementȱ withȱmyȱworkȱwasȱbasedȱonȱaȱsincereȱcuriosityȱregardingȱtheȱ empiricalȱfindings,ȱwhichȱmadeȱourȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱtheȱprojectȱ interestingȱandȱrewarding.ȱȱMoreover,ȱherȱcommentsȱwereȱthoroughȱ andȱdetailed,ȱwhichȱmadeȱmeȱmoreȱfocusedȱandȱstructured.ȱSadly,ȱ AnneȱMarieȱfellȱseriouslyȱillȱandȱpassedȱawayȱduringȱtheȱresearch.ȱIȱ amȱtrulyȱsorryȱthatȱsheȱisȱnoȱlongerȱwithȱus,ȱbutȱIȱamȱalsoȱtrulyȱ gratefulȱthatȱIȱhadȱtheȱchanceȱtoȱgetȱtoȱknowȱherȱandȱtoȱlearnȱfromȱ her.ȱȱIȱamȱalsoȱveryȱgratefulȱtoȱProfessorȱLarsȱFuglsangȱwhoȱ
immediatelyȱtookȱonȱtheȱtaskȱasȱmyȱcoȬsupervisorȱwhenȱAnneȱMarieȱ
hadȱtoȱleave.ȱȱDiscussionsȱwithȱLarsȱhelpedȱmeȱmoveȱforwardȱwhenȱIȱ foundȱitȱhardȱtoȱgetȱstartedȱwithȱactuallyȱwritingȱtheȱthesis.ȱȱHeȱgaveȱ furthermoreȱinsightfulȱandȱhelpfulȱcommentsȱduringȱtheȱwritingȱ process.ȱȱIȱwouldȱnotȱtheȱleastȱlikeȱtoȱthankȱRolfȱRønningȱforȱbeingȱ supportiveȱthroughoutȱandȱbeyondȱtheȱscholarshipȱperiod,ȱandȱforȱ includingȱmeȱonȱaȱbookȱproject.ȱ
IȱamȱalsoȱthankfulȱforȱbeingȱadmittedȱasȱaȱPhDȱcandidateȱatȱtheȱ CentreȱforȱTechnology,ȱInnovationȱandȱCultureȱ(theȱTIKȬcentre)ȱatȱ UIO.ȱIȱhaveȱparticipatedȱinȱtwoȱexcellentȱPhDȱcoursesȱatȱTIK,ȱandȱ threeȱ“Isegran”ȱseminarsȱwithȱdedicatedȱandȱinspiringȱPhDȱstudentsȱ andȱlecturers.ȱȱBeingȱadmittedȱasȱaȱPhDȱcandidateȱatȱTIKȱalsoȱmeantȱ thatȱIȱwasȱfortunateȱtoȱbeȱsupervisedȱbyȱProfessorȱHansȱChristianȱ Sørhaug.ȱHisȱinputsȱonȱtheȱthesisȱhaveȱbeenȱwiseȱandȱsupportive,ȱ andȱmostȱimportantly,ȱheȱhasȱinvitedȱtoȱinterestingȱphilosophicalȱ discussionsȱwhichȱhaveȱchallengedȱmeȱtoȱfindȱalternativeȱwaysȱofȱ seeingȱthings.ȱȱ
Inȱaddition,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱthankȱmyȱcurrentȱemployerȱ
Østlandsforskning,ȱinȱparticularȱMortenȱØrbeckȱandȱTrudeȱHellaȱ Eide,ȱforȱbeingȱpatientȱandȱencouragingȱwhileȱIȱsomewhatȱdelayedȱ haveȱfinalizedȱtheȱthesis.ȱMoreover,ȱØFȱhasȱbeenȱanȱexcellentȱplaceȱtoȱ workȱlateȱhoursȱdueȱtoȱgreatȱcolleagues.ȱHelpfulȱcommentsȱandȱnotȱ theȱleastȱmassesȱofȱmoralȱsupportȱfromȱmyȱPhDȱcomradeȱTonjeȱ Lauritzenȱhaveȱbeenȱparticularlyȱvaluable.ȱȱ
WhileȱaȱPhDȱprojectȱtendsȱtoȱbeȱassociatedȱwithȱsolitude,ȱIȱseeȱnowȱinȱ retrospectȱthatȱIȱduringȱtheseȱyearsȱhaveȱmetȱandȱengagedȱwithȱlotsȱ ofȱinspiringȱpeopleȱatȱconferences,ȱseminarsȱandȱcourses.ȱButȱtoȱallȱofȱ youȱthatȱhaveȱdisturbedȱmeȱandȱtakenȱmyȱmindȱoffȱacademics,ȱyouȱ haveȱbeenȱjustȱasȱimportant!ȱTheȱmostȱdelightfulȱdisturbancesȱofȱmyȱ lifeȱareȱofȱcourseȱmyȱdaughtersȱFridaȱandȱSofia,ȱthankȱyouȱforȱ constantlyȱremindingȱmeȱthatȱthereȱareȱmoreȱimportantȱthingsȱtoȱlifeȱ thanȱaȱPhDȱthesis.ȱLast,ȱbutȱcertainlyȱnotȱleast,ȱthankȱyouȱMattiasȱforȱ beingȱwhoȱyouȱare.ȱȱIȱcouldȱnotȱhaveȱcompletedȱthisȱwithoutȱyourȱ love,ȱsupportȱandȱcooking!ȱȱBesidesȱyouȱhaveȱcleverlyȱandȱrepeatedlyȱ remindedȱmeȱthatȱ“whetherȱyouȱthinkȱyouȱcanȱorȱyouȱthinkȱyouȱcan’tȱ –ȱyou’reȱright”.ȱThisȱhasȱgivenȱmeȱtheȱconfidenceȱtoȱcarryȱonȱalsoȱinȱ theȱstrenuousȱperiods.ȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ
C ONTENT
Acknowledgements ... 4
Content ... 7
Summary ... 10
Chapter 1: Setting the Stage ... 13
Introduction... 13
The Norwegian Employment- and Welfare Services (NAV) ... 15
The Screen-level Bureaucracy ... 16
Coping and Tinkering ... 20
Multipurpose systems ... 24
Standardized Flexibility ... 26
Discretion ... 27
Sociomateriality and Technology ... 33
Research Question and Aims ... 35
Positioning and Contribution ... 36
Intersecting Research ... 40
Summary and a Peek Forward ... 41
Structure of the Thesis ... 42
Chapter 2: Theory ... 45
Introduction... 45
PART 1: Theoretical Resources ... 48
Sociomateriality and ANT ... 48
A Sociology of Translations ... 49
ANT as Relational Ontology ... 53
Critical Concerns ... 57
On the Other Hand… ... 61
PART 2: Analytical Framework ... 64
Agency and Structure ... 64
The Panopticon ... 67
Textual Readings of Technology ... 70
Choreography as a Golden Mean ... 76
Information Systems and Choreography ... 79
At the Intersection of Choreography and Dance ... 80
Dimensions for Analysing ICT and Discipline ... 84
Choreography as Plot ... 86
Chapter 3: Methodology ... 89
Introduction... 89
Anthropology and Sociomateriality ... 90
Abduction ... 95
Texts and Narratives ... 99
Narratives and Process Data ... 103
The Research in Sequence ... 105
Preliminaries... 105
The Field Study ... 112
Collecting Stories ... 117
Analysis and Writing ... 121
Emplotment ... 123
Storytelling and Authenticity ... 124
Chapter 4: The NAV advisor ... 127
Introduction... 127
Demarcation ... 128
The NAV Advisor – What’s New? ... 129
Work Assessment Allowance ... 132
Tensions ... 135
Specialized Generalists ... 135
A Merger of Professional Roles ... 139
Cowboys and Rules ... 141
Cash and Care ... 142
The Job Description and the Job Described ... 145
NAV as Screen-level Bureaucracy ... 150
Digital Transitions ... 152
Gosys ... 154
Arena ... 157
Concluding Remarks ... 160
Chapter 5: The Client and the System ... 163
Introduction... 163
A Screen-level Working Day ... 164
The Client versus the System - Revised ... 172
The Computer in Client Meetings ... 175
Tricky Cases... 181
Cold Technology – Warm Care ... 186
The Information Systems as Scapegoats ... 193
Chapter 6: Advising Step-by-Step ... 197
Introduction... 197
Digital Discipline in Public Service Delivery ... 199
The Work Capacity Assessment ... 203
The Assessment Procedure in Training ... 205
The Assessment Procedure in Practice ... 206
The Advisors’ Perceptions ... 207
What about the Client? ... 210
Obligatory and Rigid ... 215
Lost in Translation? ... 219
Prescriptions and Resources ... 220
Rigidity and Leeway to Adjust ... 223
Technologies of Accountability... 225
Disciplined Workflows ... 227
Concluding Remarks – A Catch-22 ... 229
Chapter 7: A choreography of Workloads ... 231
Introduction... 231
Arena as Choreography ... 232
The Workbench ... 232
The Ideal and the Actual Workbench ... 234
Dealing with the Gap ... 239
Calls for Local Adjustment ... 241
Coping with Discrepancy: Responses and Strategies ... 244
Compromised Ideals ... 246
Gosys as Choreography ... 248
Mediation of Inquiries ... 248
The 48-hour Guarantee ... 249
Displaying Inadequacy ... 255
Ideals and Choreographies ... 257
Concluding Remarks ... 260
Chapter 8: The Sum of the Systems ... 263
Introduction... 263
Sociomateriality and Choreographies ... 264
The Controversies on Sociomateriality ... 270
Choreo-graphics ... 272
Avenues for Further Research ... 277
The Standardized Flexibility of NAV ... 279
Shaping or Shaped? ... 283
Concluding Remarks ... 287
References ... 293
APPENDIX ... 313
Figures Figure 1: Features of ideal type frontline employees ... 140
Figure 2: Arena Interface, the work capacity assessment ... 204
S UMMARY
Thisȱthesisȱexploresȱhow,ȱandȱtoȱwhatȱextent,ȱdigitalȱinformationȱ systemsȱinȱtheȱNorwegianȱEmploymentȱandȱWelfareȱServicesȱ(NAV),ȱ areȱshapingȱworkȱpracticesȱatȱtheȱfrontlineȱofȱtheȱorganization.ȱThus,ȱ theȱthesisȱdealsȱarguablyȱwithȱtheȱ“screenȬlevelȱbureaucracy”,ȱwhichȱ entailsȱinvestigationsȱofȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱcapacitiesȱofȱICTȱandȱ explorationsȱofȱhowȱpowerfulȱtheseȱtechnologiesȱareȱasȱcontrolȱandȱ managementȱtools.ȱInvolvedȱinȱthisȱisȱtheȱissueȱofȱwhetherȱtheȱfrontȬ lineȱemployees’ȱroomȱforȱdiscretionȱisȱbeingȱmaintained,ȱ
strengthenedȱorȱchallengedȱwhenȱtheirȱworkȱpracticesȱareȱ increasinglyȱICTȬenabled.ȱȱ
Furthermore,ȱstudyingȱtheȱdiscipliningȱcapacitiesȱofȱinformationȱ systemsȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱNAVȱimpliesȱexplorationsȱofȱwhetherȱ increasinglyȱICTȬenabledȱworkȱareȱsupportingȱorȱhamperingȱeffortsȱ toȱcreateȱmoreȱclientȬorientedȱservices,ȱaȱprominentȱobjectiveȱofȱthisȱ organization.ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱarguedȱthatȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱenhancedȱ clientȬorientationȱisȱhighlyȱambiguous,ȱandȱtheȱthesisȱtwistsȱandȱ turnsȱtheȱnotionȱofȱ“clientȬorientation”ȱforȱthenȱtoȱanalyseȱtheȱ entangledȱroleȱofȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱinȱeffortsȱtoȱrealizeȱthisȱ objective.ȱTheȱdissertationȱhighlightsȱinȱthisȱrespectȱaȱcrucialȱ paradox,ȱwhichȱisȱseenȱtoȱpermeateȱcentralȱdevelopmentsȱofȱ contemporaryȱpublicȱwelfareȱservice.ȱOnȱoneȱhand,ȱtheseȱ developmentsȱareȱmarkedȱbyȱaȱpressureȱtoȱindividualizeȱpublicȱ welfareȱservices,ȱwhichȱrequiresȱenhancedȱroomȱforȱdiscretionȱandȱ flexibilityȱamongȱfrontȱlineȱemployees.ȱInȱparallel,ȱtheȱserviceȱ deliveryȱisȱincreasinglyȱdigitalized,ȱwhichȱentailsȱmoreȱ
standardizationȱandȱaȱcertainȱrigidity.ȱTheȱconceptȱofȱ“standardizedȱ flexibility”ȱisȱintroducedȱtoȱcaptureȱthisȱintertwining,ȱandȱtheȱthesisȱ exploresȱtheȱnarrativesȱofȱhowȱthisȱ“standardizedȱflexibility”ȱunfoldsȱ inȱpractice.ȱȱ
NAVȱrepresentsȱaȱvividȱcaseȱtoȱexploreȱtheseȱissues,ȱasȱtheȱ organizationȱisȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱmergerȱofȱthreeȱformerȱseparateȱ welfareȱagencies.ȱTheȱmergerȱwasȱaȱresponseȱtoȱaȱlongȬheldȱconcernȱ thatȱtheȱwelfareȱservicesȱhaveȱbeenȱsufferingȱfromȱfragmentationȱandȱ disintegration,ȱwhileȱincreasedȱhorizontalȱintegrationȱhasȱbeenȱ proposedȱasȱaȱnecessaryȱremedy.ȱTheȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱnewȱfrontȬ lineȱrole,ȱ“theȱNAVȬadvisor”,ȱhasȱbeenȱcentralȱinȱthisȱregard,ȱandȱtheȱ thesisȱillustratesȱhowȱtheȱorganization’sȱinformationȱsystemsȱplayȱaȱ prominentȱroleȱinȱtheȱformationȱofȱthisȱnewȱprofessionalȱrole.ȱItȱisȱ arguedȱthatȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱlargelyȱprescribeȱtheȱadvisor’sȱ workȱpractices,ȱwhileȱitȱisȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱdemonstratedȱthatȱtheȱ employeesȱcontinuouslyȱnegotiate,ȱorȱ“tinker”,ȱwithȱtheȱdigitalȱ prescriptionsȱforȱwork.ȱThisȱtinkeringȱtakesȱpartlyȱplaceȱbecauseȱtheȱ systemsȱ“translate”ȱpolicyȱidealsȱforȱhowȱtheȱworkȱisȱtoȱbeȱcarriedȱ out,ȱwhichȱtendsȱtoȱbeȱincompatibleȱwithȱtheȱadvisors’ȱworkingȱ conditions.ȱTheȱadvisorsȱfindȱvariousȱwaysȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱtheseȱ discrepancies,ȱandȱtheȱauthorȱidentifiesȱthreeȱmainȱstrategies:ȱ Pragmaticȱignorance,ȱcomplianceȱandȱadaption.ȱȱ
Whileȱpointingȱoutȱtheȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheseȱthreeȱstrategies,ȱitȱ alsoȱunderscoredȱthatȱtheyȱshareȱaȱcommonȱfeatureȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱ theyȱdoȱnotȱopposeȱtheȱprinciplesȱorȱlogicȱofȱtheȱsystem.ȱThus,ȱitȱisȱ arguedȱthatȱthereȱisȱanȱelementȱofȱcomplianceȱinȱallȱthreeȱtypesȱofȱ responses.ȱThisȱgivesȱwayȱtoȱclaimȱthatȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱ essentiallyȱplayȱaȱratherȱdominantȱrole.ȱ
Theoretically,ȱtheȱmetaphorȱofȱchoreographyȱisȱintroducedȱasȱanȱ overallȱanalyticalȱframeworkȱtoȱcaptureȱthis.ȱMoreover,ȱthisȱ frameworkȱisȱpresentedȱasȱaȱfineȬtunedȱtheoreticalȱapproachȱtoȱtellȱ balancedȱstoriesȱofȱtheȱdiscipliningȱroleȱofȱICTȱinȱorganizationsȱandȱ workȱlifeȱmoreȱgenerally.ȱTheȱtheoreticalȱframingȱisȱbasedȱinȱaȱstrandȱ ofȱresearchȱlabelledȱ“Sociomateriality”ȱwhichȱamongȱothersȱdrawȱonȱ ActorȬnetworkȱtheoryȱasȱaȱcentralȱinspirationalȱsource.ȱTheseȱ perspectivesȱstressȱtheȱentanglementȱandȱinextricabilityȱofȱtheȱsocialȱ andȱtheȱmaterial,ȱandȱinȱturnȱthisȱdichotomyȱisȱseenȱasȱenactedȱandȱ performedȱratherȱthanȱpreȬgivenȱandȱfixed.ȱTheȱthesisȱdemonstratesȱ theȱstrengthȱofȱtheseȱinsights.ȱȱ
ȱ
C HAPTER 1: S ETTING THE S TAGE
Introduction
Theȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱthesisȱisȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱroleȱofȱinformationȱandȱ communicationȱtechnologyȱ(ICT)ȱinȱtheȱworkȱplace.ȱMoreȱ
specifically,ȱbasedȱonȱanȱempiricalȱstudyȱofȱtheȱNorwegianȱ employmentȬȱandȱwelfareȱservicesȱ(NAV),ȱitȱexploresȱtheȱroleȱofȱ digitalȱinformationȱsystemsȱinȱpublicȱservices.ȱTheȱthesisȱtellsȱ severalȱ(atȱtimesȱcontradictory)ȱstoriesȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheseȱsystemsȱ inȱanȱorganizationȱundergoingȱcomprehensiveȱchangeȱonȱaȱ structuralȱlevel.ȱTheȱresearchȱfirstȱexaminesȱhowȱtheȱinformationȱ systemsȱtranslateȱ(Callon,ȱ1986;ȱLatour,ȱ1991)ȱtopȱmanagement’sȱ plansȱtoȱchangeȱlocalȱworkȱpracticesȱfromȱpolicyȱtoȱtheȱoperationalȱ levelȱinȱtheȱorganization.ȱSecond,ȱatȱtheȱcentreȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱareȱ theȱendȬusersȱofȱtheȱsystems,ȱtheȱemployeesȱprocessingȱclaimsȱandȱ interactingȱwithȱclients,ȱinȱthisȱcaseȱcalledȱ“NAVȱadvisors”.ȱTheȱ NAVȱadvisorsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱbeingȱplacedȱatȱtheȱfrontlineȱofȱtheȱ serviceȱorganization.1ȱ
TheȱthesisȱprovidesȱinsightȱintoȱhowȱfrontȬlineȱemployeesȱrelateȱtoȱ theȱsystems’ȱtranslatedȱexpectationsȱofȱhowȱtheyȱareȱtoȱorganizeȱ andȱcarryȱoutȱtheirȱwork.ȱȱAȱfocalȱpointȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱisȱthereforeȱ theȱemployees’ȱinterpretationsȱofȱtheȱlogicȱofȱtheȱsystemsȱandȱtheirȱ perceptions,ȱasȱwellȱasȱpracticalȱresponses,ȱtoȱhowȱtheȱsystemsȱ prescribeȱworkȱpractices.ȱȱȱ
1 I use the term “frontline” in the same way as NAV uses the term (in
Norwegian:”Førstelinje”). In this organizational context, the frontline is used as a broad term that includes the employees responsible for processing claims and interacting with clients. This includes tasks that may be regarded in other contexts as back-office work. I use the term interchangeably with “the operational level.”
Inȱthisȱway,ȱIȱportrayȱinȱvariousȱwaysȱhowȱtheȱemployeesȱ negotiateȱwithȱtheȱtechnology.ȱToȱunderscoreȱtheȱpracticalȱ tweakingȱinvolved,ȱIȱtermȱtheseȱnegotiationsȱ“tinkering”ȱ(Mol,ȱ Moser,ȱ&ȱPols,ȱ2010a;ȱTimmermansȱ&ȱBerg,ȱ1997),ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱ theȱconventionalȱunderstandingȱofȱnegotiationsȱasȱverbalȱ argumentation.ȱByȱpayingȱattentionȱtoȱthisȱtinkering,ȱIȱrevealȱ variousȱtensionsȱthatȱtheȱNAVȱadvisorsȱareȱfacingȱinȱtheirȱdailyȱ work.ȱ
Iȱfurtherȱdrawȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱcomplexityȱofȱthisȱsubjectȱmatterȱbyȱ highlightingȱhowȱincreasedȱdigitalizationȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱparallelȱtoȱ aȱsteadyȱpressureȱtoȱindividualizeȱpublicȱservices.ȱThisȱisȱreflectedȱ inȱoneȱofȱNAV’sȱcentralȱgoals,ȱwhichȱisȱtoȱcreateȱmoreȱ“clientȬ orientedȱservices”ȱ2ȱ(MinistryȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱServices,ȱ2005).ȱ Whileȱincreasedȱdigitalizationȱseemsȱtoȱimplyȱanȱincreasedȱ
standardization,ȱtheȱindividualizationȱofȱservicesȱisȱseenȱtoȱrequireȱ anȱenhancedȱflexibilityȱandȱroomȱforȱdiscretionȱamongȱfrontlineȱ employeesȱ(Leidner,ȱ1993;ȱSundbo,ȱ2002).ȱTheȱsubjectȱmatterȱtoȱbeȱ exploredȱmayȱthusȱbeȱcoinedȱ“standardizedȱflexibility”,ȱandȱtheȱ thesisȱshedsȱlightȱonȱhowȱthisȱstandardizedȱflexibilityȱunfoldsȱinȱ practice.ȱ
Inȱthisȱchapter,ȱIȱmainlyȱintroduceȱtheȱcaseȱunderȱscrutiny.ȱ Moreover,ȱIȱoutlineȱtheȱcontextualȱbackdropȱofȱtheȱcaseȱthroughȱaȱ briefȱoutlineȱofȱcentralȱtendenciesȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱpublicȱ welfareȱservices.ȱIȱhighlightȱhowȱNAVȱprovidesȱaȱfruitfulȱ empiricalȱentranceȱtoȱexploreȱhowȱeffortsȱtoȱindividualizeȱpublicȱ servicesȱcorrespondȱtoȱincreasedȱdigitalization.ȱAdditionally,ȱtoȱ setȱtheȱstageȱforȱtheȱchaptersȱahead,ȱIȱaccountȱforȱcentralȱconceptsȱ thatȱIȱdrawȱonȱinȱtheȱanalysis.ȱAtȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱchapter,ȱIȱpresentȱ researchȱquestions,ȱaimsȱandȱcontributions,ȱandȱlastly,ȱanȱoutlineȱ ofȱtheȱthesis’ȱstructure.ȱȱ
2 NAV uses the terms “user” (“bruker” in Norwegian) and “user-orientation”, while I use the terms “client” and “client –orientation” in this thesis to avoid confusion since I also talk about the front line employees as “users” of technology.
The Norwegian Employment- and Welfare Services (NAV)
TheȱorganizationȱNAVȱisȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱNAVȱreform,ȱwhichȱwasȱ introducedȱinȱ2006ȱwithȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱtheȱNorwegianȱ EmploymentȱandȱWelfareȱAdministration,ȱwhichȱinvolvedȱaȱ mergerȱofȱtheȱformerlyȱseparateȱEmploymentȱServicesȱandȱtheȱ NationalȱInsuranceȱServices.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱmergerȱofȱtwoȱ administrationsȱintoȱone,ȱtheȱreformȱalsoȱinvolvedȱtheȱ
establishmentȱofȱaȱformalȱcollaborationȱbetweenȱNAVȱandȱtheȱ municipalȱsocialȱservices.ȱInȱtotal,ȱtheȱorganizationȱemploysȱ approximatelyȱ19,000ȱpeople,ȱofȱwhichȱ14,000ȱareȱcentralȱ governmentȱemployeesȱandȱ5,000ȱareȱemployedȱinȱtheȱ municipalitiesȱ(NAV,s.a.).ȱȱ
TheȱNAVȱreformȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱresponseȱtoȱaȱlongȬheldȱconcernȱ thatȱtheȱwelfareȱservicesȱhaveȱbeenȱsufferingȱfromȱfragmentationȱ andȱdisintegration,ȱwhileȱincreasedȱhorizontalȱintegrationȱhasȱ beenȱproposedȱasȱaȱnecessaryȱremedyȱ(Hvinden,ȱ1994;ȱMinistryȱofȱ SocialȱServices,ȱ2004;ȱMinistryȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱServices,ȱ 2005).ȱAtȱtheȱlocalȱlevel,ȱsoȬcalledȱoneȬstopȱshopsȱ(NAVȱoffices)ȱ haveȱbeenȱsetȱupȱinȱeachȱmunicipality.ȱInȱtotal,ȱthereȱareȱ456ȱlocalȱ NAVȱoffices,ȱwhichȱareȱmeantȱtoȱprovideȱanȱintegratedȱserviceȱ deliveryȱofȱmunicipalȱsocialȱservices,ȱandȱemploymentȱandȱ welfareȱservicesȱadministeredȱunderȱtheȱcentralȱgovernment.ȱThisȱ integrationȱandȱimprovedȱcoordinationȱofȱvariousȱwelfareȱservicesȱ wasȱpresentedȱasȱvitalȱmeasuresȱforȱreachingȱtheȱoverallȱgoalsȱofȱ theȱreform;ȱstrengtheningȱtheȱworkȱforceȱwhileȱreducingȱtheȱ numberȱofȱpeopleȱonȱpublicȱwelfareȱschemes.ȱConsequently,ȱaȱ centralȱmotiveȱbehindȱtheȱmergerȱhasȱbeenȱtoȱtargetȱtheȱgroupȱofȱ usersȱofȱworkingȱageȱonȱwelfareȱschemes,ȱwhoȱforȱvariousȱreasonsȱ haveȱbeenȱhavingȱproblemsȱwithȱmaintainingȱemploymentȱorȱ gettingȱemployed.ȱThisȱgroupȱwasȱidentifiedȱasȱbeingȱcomprisedȱ ofȱapproximatelyȱ700,000ȱpeople,ȱwhichȱisȱaboutȱoneȬquarterȱofȱ theȱtotalȱamountȱofȱpeopleȱofȱworkingȱageȱinȱNorwayȱ(Ministryȱofȱ LabourȱandȱSocialȱServices,ȱ2005,ȱp.ȱ7).ȱThisȱtrend,ȱwithȱhighȱ publicȱspendingȱonȱwelfareȱbenefitsȱcombinedȱwithȱaȱweakenedȱ workforce,ȱwasȱseenȱasȱbeingȱunsustainableȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱroleȱ
ofȱtheȱwelfareȱstateȱfromȱaȱlongȬtermȱperspective.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱ centralȱstrategiesȱdeployedȱtoȱdealȱwithȱthisȱwithinȱNAVȱhasȱbeenȱ toȱdevelopȱaȱnewȱroleȱforȱtheȱfrontlineȱemployeeȱthatȱfocusesȱmoreȱ onȱtheȱindividualȱclientȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱspecificȱneeds.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱ time,ȱaȱfocusȱonȱbureaucraticȱrulesȱandȱtheȱcriteriaȱofȱeligibilityȱforȱ variousȱwelfareȱschemesȱhaveȱbeenȱsoughtȱtoȱbeȱdownplayedȱ (Helgøy,ȱKildal,ȱ&ȱNilssenȱ2011;ȱNAVȬInterim,ȱ2006).ȱȱ
Theȱgovernmentalȱdocumentsȱoutliningȱtheȱreformȱargueȱthatȱ creatingȱmoreȱclientȬorientedȱservicesȱisȱvitalȱforȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱ theȱoverallȱvisionȱofȱgettingȱmoreȱpeopleȱemployed.ȱClientȬ orientationȱisȱdefinedȱasȱ“lettingȱtheȱneedsȱofȱtheȱindividualȱclientȱ andȱclientȱgroupsȱtoȱaȱlargerȱextentȱdetermineȱwhichȱservicesȱareȱ availableȱandȱhowȱtheyȱareȱperformedȱ(…)ȱClientȬorientationȱisȱ aboutȱrespect,ȱinformation,ȱavailabilityȱandȱwellȬtunedȱserviceȱ delivery”ȱ(MinistryȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱServices,ȱ2005,ȱp.ȱ34ȱ,ȱmyȱ translation).ȱItȱisȱfurtherȱspecifiedȱthatȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱclientȬ orientedȱservicesȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱincreasinglyȱadjustingȱtheȱservicesȱ toȱmatchȱindividualȱneeds,ȱandȱofȱincludingȱtheȱuser’sȱexperiencesȱ andȱviewsȱinȱtheȱprocessingȱofȱcases.ȱTherefore,ȱanȱenhancedȱ clientȬorientationȱideallyȱinvolvesȱanȱincreasedȱfocusȱonȱtheȱ individualȱclientȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱneedsȱasȱtheȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱforȱ theȱserviceȱdelivery.ȱ
The Screen-level Bureaucracy
Thisȱstudyȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱbeingȱempiricallyȱsetȱinȱtheȱ“screenȬlevelȱ bureaucracy”ȱ(Bovensȱ&ȱZouridis,ȱ2002),ȱwhichȱisȱaȱspinȬoffȱfromȱ whatȱMichaelȱLipskyȱcoinedȱtheȱ“streetȬlevelȱbureaucracy”ȱ (Lipsky,ȱ1980).ȱLipskyȱusedȱthisȱȱtermȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱ“schools,ȱ policeȱandȱwelfareȱdepartments,ȱlowerȱcourts,ȱlegalȱservicesȱ officesȱandȱotherȱagenciesȱwhoseȱworkersȱinteractȱwithȱandȱhaveȱ wideȱdiscretionȱoverȱtheȱdispensationȱofȱbenefitsȱorȱtheȱallocationȱ ofȱpublicȱsanctions”ȱ(Lipsky,ȱ1980,ȱp.ȱxi).ȱȱ
Lipskyȱ(1980)ȱpaysȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱindividualȱemployeeȱ inȱpublicȱservices.ȱHeȱtakesȱaȱsoȬcalledȱbottomȬupȱperspectiveȱonȱ theȱimplementationȱofȱpolitics,ȱwhileȱinȱaȱmoreȱclassical,ȱtopȬdownȱ perspective,ȱtheȱbureaucracyȱisȱseenȱtoȱmerelyȱexecuteȱpoliticalȱ objectives.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱLipskyȱarguesȱthatȱstreetȬlevelȱ bureaucratsȱplayȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱinȱshapingȱpublicȱpoliciesȱ throughȱtheirȱworkȱpractices.ȱInȱthisȱperspective,ȱtheȱstreetȬlevelȱ bureaucratsȱbecomeȱactiveȱproducersȱofȱpoliticsȱratherȱthanȱ neutralȱimplementers.ȱThisȱisȱarguablyȱoccurringȱbecauseȱtheyȱ oftenȱinterpretȱambivalentȱandȱunclearȱrulesȱwhileȱmakingȱ continuousȱchoicesȱregardingȱtheȱallocationȱofȱlimitedȱresources.ȱ LipskyȱstressesȱthatȱtheȱrealityȱthatȱstreetȬlevelȱbureaucratsȱareȱ facingȱisȱtooȱcomplexȱtoȱbeȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱrules,ȱroutinesȱandȱ proceduresȱthatȱregulateȱtheirȱwork.ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱworkȱ entailsȱconsiderableȱamountsȱofȱdiscretion.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱstreetȬ levelȱbureaucratȱisȱseenȱtoȱworkȱunderȱconstantȱpressureȱsinceȱtheȱ resourcesȱareȱconsiderablyȱlimitedȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱtasksȱtheyȱareȱ responsibleȱfor.ȱTheȱtoughȱprioritiesȱthatȱfollowȱimplyȱthatȱ throughȱthisȱexecutionȱofȱdiscretion,ȱtheyȱlargelyȱshapeȱtheȱactualȱ outcomeȱofȱtheȱservices.ȱȱ
Lipsky’sȱaimȱisȱtoȱexplainȱwhyȱpublicȱservicesȱtendȱtoȱendȱupȱ differentlyȱfromȱwhatȱwasȱintendedȱatȱtheȱpolicyȱlevel,ȱandȱheȱ paysȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱtransformationsȱthatȱtakeȱplaceȱthroughȱtheȱ practicalȱimplementationȱofȱpoliticalȱgoals.ȱLipskyȱalsoȱarguesȱthatȱ theȱmismatchȱbetweenȱidealsȱandȱrealitiesȱareȱdueȱtoȱneitherȱ flawedȱpolicies,ȱnorȱaȱlackȱofȱgoodȱintentionsȱorȱskillsȱinȱtheȱstreetȬ levelȱbureaucracy.ȱȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱresearcher,ȱtheȱproblemȱliesȱ inȱtheȱmanyȱdilemmasȱfacingȱtheȱindividualȱemployee.ȱTheȱdailyȱ workȱofȱstreetȬlevelȱbureaucratsȱisȱallegedlyȱfilledȱwithȱ
ambivalenceȱonȱseveralȱlevels,ȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱbeingȱrootedȱ inȱhowȱpublicȱservicesȱareȱguidedȱbyȱpoliciesȱandȱobjectivesȱthatȱ areȱtheȱresultsȱofȱpoliticalȱcompromises.ȱHence,ȱthereȱtendsȱtoȱbeȱ anȱunderlyingȱambivalenceȱinȱtheȱcentralȱobjectivesȱofȱtheȱserviceȱ organization,ȱandȱthereȱareȱconsiderableȱgapsȱbetweenȱtheȱidealsȱ andȱformalȱgoalsȱguidingȱpublicȱservicesȱandȱtheȱresourcesȱ
available.ȱToȱhelpȱhandleȱthisȱambivalenceȱandȱtheȱconflictingȱ pressure,ȱstreetȬlevelȱbureaucratsȱdevelopȱvariousȱcopingȱ strategiesȱaccordingȱtoȱLipsky.ȱHeȱarguesȱandȱdemonstratesȱthatȱ informalȱcopingȱstrategiesȱbecomeȱnecessaryȱfromȱtheȱ
bureaucrats’ȱpointȱofȱviewȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱgapsȱbetweenȱidealsȱ andȱreality.ȱInȱthisȱreasoning,ȱitȱbecomesȱimportantȱtoȱstudyȱtheȱ implicationsȱofȱtheseȱcopingȱstrategiesȱinȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱ hamperedȱachievementȱofȱpolicyȱgoals.ȱȱ
Severalȱscholarsȱhaveȱpointedȱtoȱhowȱtheȱbasicȱpremisesȱofȱtheȱ publicȱbureaucracyȱareȱchangingȱwithȱtheȱenhancedȱpresenceȱofȱ ICTȱ(Bovensȱ&ȱZouridis,ȱ2002;ȱDunleavy,ȱMargetts,ȱBastowȱ&ȱ Tinkler,ȱ2006;ȱHeeks,ȱ1999;ȱJornaȱ&ȱWagenaar,ȱ2007;ȱMeijer,ȱ2007;ȱ Mulder,ȱ1998).ȱNevertheless,ȱLipsky’sȱinsightsȱandȱanalysisȱstillȱ seemȱrelevant,ȱbutȱtheyȱneedȱtoȱbeȱupdatedȱinȱaccordanceȱtoȱtheȱ changingȱpremises.ȱIȱwillȱbrieflyȱaccountȱforȱwhatȱtheseȱchangingȱ premisesȱinvolve.ȱȱȱ
First,ȱtheȱtechnologicalȱdevelopmentȱleadsȱtoȱsituationsȱinȱmanyȱ casesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱstreetȬlevelȱbureaucratȱdisappearsȱfromȱtheȱ meetingȱwithȱclients.ȱServicesȱareȱautomated,ȱandȱtheȱserviceȱ organization’sȱmeetingȱpointȱwithȱtheȱpublicȱisȱbeingȱmediatedȱ throughȱelectronicȱselfȬhelpȱsolutions.ȱInȱtheseȱcases,ȱtheȱclients’ȱ meetingsȱwithȱtheȱpublicȱbureaucracyȱareȱtakingȱplaceȱatȱtheȱ interfaceȱofȱscreensȱandȱcomputerȱprogrammes,ȱandȱthisȱ developmentȱhasȱbeenȱtermedȱ“systemȬlevelȱbureaucracies”ȱ (Bovensȱ&ȱZouridis,ȱ2002).ȱTheȱroomȱforȱdiscretion,ȱwhichȱwasȱ formerlyȱinȱtheȱhandsȱofȱtheȱstreetȬȱlevelȱbureaucrat,ȱisȱthenȱinȱaȱ senseȱplacedȱinȱtheȱcomputerȱprogrammes.ȱInterpretationsȱofȱrulesȱ canȱthenȱbeȱseenȱtoȱtakeȱplaceȱamongȱdecisionȱmakers,ȱdevelopersȱ andȱprogrammersȱinvolvedȱinȱdesigningȱtheseȱprogrammes.ȱIfȱoneȱ followsȱLipsky’sȱreasoning,ȱthatȱtheȱindividualȱ“streetȬlevelȱ bureaucrat”ȱplaysȱanȱactiveȱroleȱasȱpolicyȱproducers,ȱwhatȱ
happensȱthenȱwhenȱseveralȱaspectsȱofȱtheseȱbureaucrats’ȱworkȱareȱ replacedȱbyȱinformationȱandȱcommunicationȱtechnology?ȱIsȱtheȱ technologyȱtoȱbeȱseenȱasȱactiveȱproducersȱinȱaȱsimilarȱmannerȱasȱ
theȱindividualȱbureaucrat?ȱOrȱisȱtheȱtechnologyȱworkingȱmoreȱasȱ
“neutral”ȱimplementersȱsinceȱtheȱtechnologyȱcannotȱbeȱseenȱtoȱ executeȱdiscretionȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱhumans?ȱWhatȱhappensȱ thenȱwithȱtheȱunderlyingȱambivalence,ȱwhichȱisȱseenȱtoȱcauseȱtheȱ extensiveȱexecutionȱofȱdiscretion,ȱasȱidentifiedȱbyȱLipsky?ȱȱ
Theseȱareȱinterestingȱquestionsȱthatȱhaveȱyetȱtoȱbeȱempiricallyȱ explored.ȱHowever,ȱmyȱfocusȱisȱslightlyȱdifferent.ȱBecauseȱatȱtheȱ sameȱtimeȱasȱtheȱsystemȬlevelȱbureaucracyȱemerges,ȱtheȱpublics’ȱ meetingȱwithȱtheȱbureaucracyȱcontinuesȱtoȱtakeȱplaceȱinȱtermsȱofȱ personalȱinteractionȱwithȱaȱbureaucratȱwithinȱseveralȱserviceȱ areas.ȱSuchȱmeetingsȱareȱoftenȱevenȱincreasinglyȱimportantȱwithinȱ serviceȱareasȱstrivingȱforȱenhancedȱindividualizationȱandȱtheȱ tailoringȱofȱservicesȱ(Dunleavyȱetȱal.,ȱ2006;ȱKernaghan,ȱ2005).ȱStill,ȱ theseȱmeetingsȱareȱnonethelessȱlargelyȱmediatedȱthroughȱ
computerȱprogrammes,ȱandȱtheȱmeetingsȱtendȱtoȱoccurȱbetweenȱaȱ client,ȱaȱbureaucratȱandȱaȱcomputer.ȱTheȱ“screenȬlevelȱ
bureaucracy”ȱ(Bovensȱ&ȱZouridis,ȱ2002)ȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱsuitableȱ labelȱforȱthisȱtriangle,ȱandȱitȱisȱatȱthisȱjunctureȱthatȱmyȱresearchȱisȱ set.ȱ
ȱIȱhaveȱfollowedȱtheȱICTȱdevelopmentȱinȱanȱorganization,ȱinȱwhichȱ partsȱofȱtheȱserviceȱareasȱdevelopȱtowardsȱaȱ“systemȬlevelȱ
bureaucracy”ȱwithȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱelectronicȱselfȬhelpȱ solutions.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱfocusȱofȱthisȱstudyȱisȱonȱtheȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ servicesȱinȱwhichȱpersonalȱinteractionȱwithȱclientsȱhasȱremainedȱ important,ȱorȱallegedlyȱhasȱbecomeȱincreasinglyȱimportant.ȱ Furthermore,ȱIȱhaveȱfollowedȱaȱtransitionȱinȱthisȱworkȱareaȱinȱ whichȱnearlyȱallȱworkȱprocessesȱhaveȱbecomeȱICTȬenabled,ȱhenceȱ theȱlabelȱ“screenȬlevelȱbureaucracy”.ȱȱ
Still,ȱtheseȱdevelopments,ȱofȱtheȱsystemȬlevelȬȱandȱscreenȬlevelȱ bureaucracy,ȱareȱalsoȱinterlinked.ȱInȱoneȱsense,ȱoneȱmightȱexpectȱ thatȱwhenȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱworkȱisȱautomatedȱandȱpartsȱofȱtheȱstreetȬ levelȱbureaucrat’sȱworkȱisȱ“outsourced”ȱtoȱelectronicȱselfȬhelpȱ
solutions,ȱandȱthusȱtheȱclient,3ȱcapacityȱisȱfreedȱtoȱenhanceȱtheȱ remainingȱ“clientȬoriented”ȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱwork.ȱEvenȱso,ȱtheȱ workingȱconditionsȱdescribedȱandȱexploredȱinȱthisȱthesisȱareȱ characterizedȱbyȱheavyȱworkloads,ȱtimeȱpressureȱandȱlimitedȱ resources,ȱwhichȱmakesȱcopingȱstrategiesȱsimilarȱtoȱthoseȱ
identifiedȱbyȱLipskyȱ(1980)ȱpertinent.ȱAsȱIȱhaveȱpointedȱout,ȱIȱamȱ concernedȱwithȱhowȱsuchȱcopingȱstrategiesȱmaterializeȱinȱanȱ increasinglyȱICTȬenabledȱworkȱenvironment.ȱConsequently,ȱIȱamȱ concernedȱwithȱhowȱincreasedȱdigitalizationȱchangesȱtheȱpremisesȱ ofȱtheȱemployees’ȱcopingȱstrategies.ȱȱȱ
Coping and Tinkering
TheȱcentralȱinformationȱsystemsȱinȱuseȱinȱtheȱfrontlineȱofȱNAVȱcanȱ beȱtermedȱ“workflowȱsystems”ȱ(Bardram,ȱ1997;ȱSuchman,ȱ2007).ȱ Thisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱsystemsȱideallyȱdirectȱorȱrouteȱworkȱpracticesȱ inȱaccordanceȱtoȱcertainȱprocessȱmodels.ȱAȱprocessȱmodelȱcanȱbeȱ understoodȱasȱ“aȱcomputerizedȱ(i.e.ȱformal)ȱrepresentationȱofȱ workȱproceduresȱthatȱcontrolsȱtheȱorderȱinȱwhichȱaȱsequenceȱofȱ tasksȱisȱtoȱbeȱperformed”ȱ(Bardram,ȱ1997,ȱp.ȱ17).ȱȱȱ
Withȱtheȱuseȱofȱsuchȱsystems,ȱworkȱprocessesȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱ increasinglyȱstandardizedȱthroughȱICT.ȱTheȱinformationȱsystemsȱ canȱsubsequentlyȱbeȱseenȱasȱessentialȱinȱcentralȱmanagements’ȱ effortsȱtoȱstreamlineȱcommonȱworkȱpracticesȱthroughoutȱanȱ organization.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱguidelinesȱforȱlocalȱworkȱpracticesȱcanȱ beȱseenȱtoȱbeȱimposedȱtopȬdownȱsinceȱformalȱdecisionsȱregardingȱ theȱinformationȱsystemsȱareȱmadeȱcentrallyȱatȱtheȱtopȱ
managementȱandȱstrategicȱlevel.ȱTheȱsystemsȱareȱfurthermoreȱ primarilyȱdesignedȱandȱcentrallyȱprogrammedȱwithinȱtheȱ organizationȱ(Webb,ȱ2006).ȱAccordingȱtoȱEllingsenȱetȱal.,ȱ(2007),ȱ however,ȱassumingȱthatȱtheȱstreamliningȱofȱworkȱpracticesȱ
3Electronic self-help solutions can be seen to entail an outsourcing of parts of the administrative work to the client since such solutions may enable the client to carry out work that was formerly provided by requesting information from public services.
Calculators for assessing pensions, child support or other kinds of benefits are examples of this.
throughȱICTȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱaȱunidirectionalȱtopȬdownȱmannerȱ reflectsȱaȱ“traditional”ȱviewȱofȱstandardization.ȱTheyȱchallengeȱ thisȱview,ȱarguingȱthatȱitȱgivesȱaȱflawedȱimageȱofȱhowȱtheȱ
standardizationȱofȱworkȱactuallyȱtakesȱplace.ȱInsteadȱofȱassumingȱ standardsȱasȱfixedȱentities,ȱwhichȱusersȱmerelyȱadaptȱto,ȱtheyȱ suggestȱthatȱstandardizationȱprocessesȱareȱmoreȱadequatelyȱ capturedȱasȱ“coȬconstructedȱpractices”.ȱThisȱviewȱemphasizesȱthatȱ standardizationȱinvolvesȱsocialȱnegotiationȱprocesses,ȱandȱitȱisȱ assumedȱthatȱexistentȱworkȱpracticesȱandȱintroducedȱstandardsȱ mutuallyȱshapeȱeachȱotherȱ(Ellingsenȱetȱal.,ȱ2007,ȱp.ȱ312).ȱTheȱ notionȱofȱstandardizationȱasȱaȱcoȬconstructionȱalignsȱwithȱBowkerȱ andȱStar’sȱ(2000)ȱanalysisȱofȱclassificationȱandȱstandardsȱasȱ
fundamentalȱbuildingȱblocksȱinȱwiderȱinformationȱinfrastructures.ȱ Theyȱbringȱattentionȱtoȱhowȱweȱareȱsurroundedȱbyȱ(invisible)ȱ classificationsȱandȱstandards,ȱandȱtheyȱputȱanȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱ workȱputȱintoȱtheȱconstructionȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱtheseȱ infrastructures.ȱHence,ȱthisȱperspectiveȱalsoȱhighlightsȱhowȱ standardsȱareȱnotȱfixedȱ–ȱtheirȱroleȱandȱexistenceȱareȱseenȱtoȱrestȱ onȱvariousȱformsȱofȱ(construction)ȱwork.ȱȱ
Similarly,ȱinȱanȱanalysisȱofȱmedicalȱprotocolsȱinȱhospitals,ȱ TimmermansȱandȱBergȱ(1997)ȱstressȱtheȱlocalȱanchoringȱofȱ
standardizationȱprocessesȱbyȱtermingȱstandardizationȱasȱentailingȱ theȱestablishmentȱofȱ“localȱuniversalities”.ȱȱTimmermansȱandȱBergȱ furtherȱconceptualizeȱhowȱthisȱlocalȱanchoringȱtakesȱplaceȱ
throughȱ“tinkering”.ȱTheyȱuseȱthisȱconceptȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱhowȱ variousȱadȬhocȱandȱoftenȱdeviatingȱstrategiesȱsurroundȱtheȱuseȱofȱ medicalȱprotocols.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheseȱdeviationsȱareȱnotȱseenȱasȱ underminingȱtheȱstandardizedȱsetȬup.ȱȱRather,ȱtheȱtinkeringȱisȱ seenȱasȱnecessaryȱforȱtheȱstandardsȱtoȱwork.ȱInȱshort,ȱinȱtheseȱ researchers’ȱvocabulary,ȱ“tinkering”ȱisȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱ“leewayȱtoȱ adjust”ȱ(Timmermansȱ&ȱBerg,ȱ1997,ȱp.ȱ293).ȱSimilarly,ȱMol,ȱMoserȱ andȱPolsȱ(2010a)ȱuseȱtheȱtermȱ“tinkering”ȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱhowȱcareȱ practicesȱentailȱaȱseriesȱofȱnegotiations.ȱSinceȱnegotiationsȱ
conventionallyȱimplyȱverbalȱargumentation,ȱtheyȱinsteadȱuseȱtheȱ conceptȱofȱ“tinkering”ȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱpracticalȱtweakingȱ
involvedȱinȱtheȱwayȱweȱcontinuouslyȱinteractȱwithȱmaterialȱ objects.ȱȱInȱaddition,ȱtheyȱuseȱ“tinkering”ȱasȱaȱbroadȱtermȱtoȱ indicateȱhowȱtechnologyȱisȱconstantlyȱ“caredȱfor”ȱbyȱitsȱusers.ȱ Thisȱrefersȱtoȱhowȱpeopleȱconstantlyȱadaptȱtoolsȱtoȱspecificȱ situations,ȱandȱhowȱtheȱsituationsȱareȱadaptedȱtoȱtheȱtoolsȱ(Mol,ȱ Moser,ȱ&ȱPols,ȱ2010b,ȱp.ȱ15).ȱȱ
Iȱfindȱthatȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱthisȱconceptȱofȱ“tinkering”ȱfruitfullyȱ capturesȱhowȱtheȱNAVȱemployeesȱinȱmyȱstudyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱ informationȱsystemsȱthatȱtheyȱuseȱinȱtheirȱdailyȱwork.ȱForȱvariousȱ reasons,ȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱfollowȱtheȱsystems’ȱformalȱprescriptionsȱforȱ workȱstraightforwardly.ȱTheyȱfindȱwaysȱtoȱbypassȱorȱadjustȱtheȱ prescriptions,ȱperhapsȱmostȱadequatelyȱcapturedȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱ negotiationsȱwithȱartefactsȱ–ȱthusȱtinkering.ȱȱ
Whenȱanalysingȱmyȱempiricalȱmaterial,ȱIȱgraduallyȱcameȱtoȱrealizeȱ theȱimportanceȱofȱhowȱvariousȱinformalȱpracticesȱsurroundedȱtheȱ useȱofȱtheȱinformationȱsystems.ȱLookingȱthroughȱmyȱfieldȱnotes,ȱ however,ȱtheȱcentralityȱofȱtinkeringȱpracticesȱactuallyȱmetȱmeȱveryȱ concretelyȱonȱtheȱveryȱfirstȱdayȱinȱtheȱfield.ȱIȱhadȱpresentedȱmyselfȱ asȱaȱresearcherȱwhoȱwantedȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱinformationȱ systemsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱNAV’sȱcentralȱobjectiveȱtoȱcreateȱmoreȱ
“clientȬorientedȱservices”.ȱIȱhadȱalsoȱspecifiedȱthatȱIȱwasȱ
particularlyȱinterestedȱtoȱlearnȱaboutȱArena,ȱsinceȱthisȱsystemȱwasȱ toȱworkȱasȱNAV’sȱfrontlineȱfollowȬupȱtoolȱinȱrelationȱtoȱclients.ȱ Therefore,ȱIȱwasȱintroducedȱonȱtheȱfirstȱdayȱtoȱaȱdepartmentȱ managerȱwhoȱwasȱpresentedȱasȱtheȱmostȱexperiencedȱArenaȱ personȱinȱtheȱoffice.ȱSheȱquicklyȱlaughinglyȱresponded:ȱ“AtȱleastȱIȱ knowȱhowȱtoȱ‘cheat’ȱtheȱsystem,ȱbutȱnowȱtheyȱkeepȱchangingȱitȱ andȱitȱisȱgettingȱeverȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱ‘cheat’”.ȱIȱtermȱthisȱ
“cheating”ȱtinkering,ȱandȱthisȱstatementȱbringsȱattentionȱtoȱhowȱ commonȱandȱrelevantȱthisȱtinkeringȱis,ȱwhileȱalsoȱhighlightingȱ howȱmanagementȱandȱprogrammersȱmayȱrespondȱtoȱtheȱ tinkering.ȱThus,ȱtheȱstatementȱalsoȱbringsȱattentionȱtoȱhowȱtheȱ tinkeringȱisȱconstrainedȱandȱcontrolledȱfromȱabove.ȱTheȱ
“cheating”ȱisȱmetȱwithȱchangesȱinȱtheȱsystemsȱthatȱlimitȱtheȱ
optionsȱforȱcheating.ȱȱThisȱunderscoresȱtheȱdynamicȱrelationshipȱ betweenȱtheȱemployeesȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevel,ȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱ andȱ“they”,ȱi.e.ȱtheȱprogrammersȱandȱdecisionȬmakersȱcentrallyȱ placedȱinȱtheȱorganization.ȱȱ
TheȱstandardizationȱofȱworkȱthroughȱICTȱmayȱcertainlyȱnotȱworkȱ outȱtheȱwayȱitȱwasȱintended,ȱasȱtheȱactualȱworkȱpracticesȱcannotȱ beȱexpectedȱtoȱmirrorȱtheȱstandardizedȱpathsȱsetȱinȱtheȱ
informationȱsystem,ȱandȱtheȱconceptsȱofȱcoȬconstructionȱandȱ tinkeringȱbothȱbringȱattentionȱtoȱthis.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱinȱmostȱ officeȱworkȱtheȱcomputerȱhasȱbecomeȱtheȱunavoidableȱentranceȱ pointȱtoȱgettingȱthingsȱdone.ȱTheȱcomputer,ȱcertainȱinformationȱ systemsȱandȱparticularȱapplicationsȱinȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱ canȱbeȱseenȱtoȱbecomeȱ“obligatoryȱpassageȱpoints”ȱ(Callon,ȱ1986;ȱ Latour,ȱ1987)ȱforȱcarryingȱoutȱnearlyȱallȱtypesȱofȱtasks.ȱIfȱyouȱareȱ notȱcapableȱofȱhandlingȱtheȱtechnology,ȱthenȱyouȱareȱnotȱableȱtoȱ handleȱtheȱjob.ȱȱ
Myȱstudyȱgivesȱattentionȱtoȱhowȱdigitalȱinformationȱsystemsȱmayȱ takeȱpartȱinȱshapingȱworkȱpracticesȱinȱaȱhighlyȱdetailedȱmanner.ȱItȱ isȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱcomputerȱorȱcertainȱinformationȱsystemsȱthatȱcanȱ beȱseenȱtoȱbeȱestablishedȱasȱ“obligatoryȱpassages”,ȱbutȱalsoȱcertainȱ applicationsȱinȱtheȱinformationȱsystems.ȱSinceȱtheȱsystemsȱareȱ directingȱtheȱ“workflow”,ȱtheȱprogrammingȱofȱtheȱsystemȱmayȱ linkȱworkȱprocessesȱtogetherȱsoȱthatȱtoȱconductȱoneȱworkȱprocess,ȱ anotherȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱcompletedȱfirst.ȱHence,ȱspecificȱworkȱstepsȱ andȱproceduresȱenabledȱthroughȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱcanȱbeȱ madeȱintoȱobligatoryȱpassages.ȱAsȱIȱsuggestedȱinȱtheȱpreviousȱ section,ȱhowever,ȱemployeesȱmayȱnotȱfollowȱsuchȱpassagesȱ straightforwardly,ȱasȱtheyȱmayȱ“tinker”ȱinȱvariousȱwaysȱwithȱtheȱ standardizedȱsetȬups.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheyȱmayȱpursueȱvariousȱ informalȱstrategiesȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱsystemȱinȱaccordanceȱtoȱtheirȱ capacities,ȱskillsȱandȱcharacteristicsȱinȱtheȱlocalȱworkȱcontext.ȱȱ
Multipurpose systems
Byȱlookingȱatȱtheȱinformationȱtechnologyȱasȱprovidingȱanȱ
“obligatoryȱpassage”ȱatȱtheȱoperationalȱlevelȱinȱpublicȱservices,ȱIȱ grantȱtheȱcomputerȱandȱdigitalȱinformationȱsystemsȱaȱratherȱ dominantȱposition.ȱTheȱdominanceȱofȱtheseȱsystemsȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱ highlightedȱbyȱexplicatingȱhowȱtheseȱsystemsȱtendȱtoȱembraceȱ manyȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱfunctionsȱallȱinȱone.ȱTheȱinformationȱ systemsȱunderȱscrutinyȱinȱthisȱstudyȱserveȱatȱleastȱaȱdualȱpurpose.ȱ Theyȱareȱmeantȱtoȱprovideȱknowledgeȱsupportȱandȱinȱvariousȱ waysȱfacilitateȱandȱstructureȱworkȱprocessesȱatȱtheȱoperationalȱ levelȱinȱtheȱorganization,ȱwhileȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheyȱareȱ managementȱtoolsȱusedȱtoȱmonitorȱandȱcontrolȱlocalȱ
performances,ȱandȱproduceȱstatisticsȱforȱstrategicȱplanning.ȱTheȱ informationȱsystemsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱmaterialȱdevicesȱthatȱenableȱ centralȱmanagementȱtoȱ“actȱatȱaȱdistance”ȱ(Latour,ȱ1987ȱp.ȱ219;ȱ Law,ȱ1986).ȱȱȱ
Theȱsameȱkindȱofȱdualityȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱinherentȱinȱmanyȱ integratedȱinformationȱsystems,ȱe.g.ȱhealthȱinformationȱsystemsȱ areȱaȱrelevantȱcomparison.ȱȱCentralȱtoȱtheȱresearchȱonȱsuchȱ systemsȱareȱtheȱdilemmasȱinvolvedȱinȱdevelopingȱsystemsȱthatȱ serveȱtheȱdualȱandȱoftenȱcontradictoryȱpurposeȱofȱbeingȱ
managementȱandȱstrategicȱtoolsȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱwhileȱprovidingȱ supportȱatȱtheȱoperationalȱlevelȱonȱtheȱother.ȱDiscussingȱandȱ assessingȱtheȱapplicability,ȱsuccessȱorȱfailureȱofȱsuchȱsystemsȱ ultimatelyȱleadȱtoȱaȱmatterȱofȱhowȱ“oneȱperson’sȱfailureȱmayȱbeȱ anotherȱperson’sȱsuccess”ȱ(Heeks,ȱ2006ȱp.ȱ126).ȱInȱturn,ȱthisȱentailsȱ discussionsȱonȱtheȱmostȱappropriateȱwaysȱofȱdevelopingȱsuchȱ systems.ȱWithinȱinformatics,ȱseveralȱactionȬbasedȱresearchȱprojectsȱ haveȱadvocatedȱtheȱstrengthȱofȱdevelopingȱsuchȱsystemsȱonȱaȱ smallȬscaleȱinȱcloseȱcollaborationȱwithȱusersȱ(Ellingsenȱ&ȱ
Monteiro,ȱ2012).ȱTheȱstrengthȱliesȱinȱhowȱthisȱstrategyȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱ ensureȱthatȱtheȱsystemsȱareȱtailoredȱtoȱtheȱuser’sȱworkȱpractices,ȱ therebyȱavoidingȱdesignȬrealityȱgapsȱ(Heeks,ȱ2006).ȱByȱcontrast,ȱ theȱproblemȱofȱthisȱkindȱofȱuserȬdrivenȱdevelopmentȱisȱseenȱtoȱlieȱ inȱproblemsȱofȱhowȱtoȱscaleȱtheȱsystemsȱinȱwaysȱthatȱenableȱaȱ
broaderȱimpactȱonȱtheȱhealthȱcareȱsystemȱ(Ellingsenȱ&ȱMonteiro,ȱ 2012).ȱ
Itȱisȱalsoȱrelevantȱtoȱdrawȱparallelsȱbetweenȱtheȱroleȱofȱinformationȱ systemsȱinȱpublicȱwelfareȱservicesȱtoȱhealthȱcare,ȱȱinȱtermsȱofȱhowȱ bothȱdomainsȱpursueȱinformationȱsystemsȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱ
standardizeȱworkȱpracticeȱinȱorderȱ“toȱaimȱforȱefficiencyȱgainsȱandȱ improvementsȱinȱqualityȱsimultaneously”ȱ(Ellingsenȱetȱal.,ȱ2007ȱp.ȱ 310,ȱitalicsȱinȱoriginalȱ).ȱTheseȱ“multipurpose”ȱelementsȱofȱtheȱ informationȱsystemsȱfurtherȱamplifyȱhowȱtheȱsystemsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱ asȱdominantȱactorsȱwithinȱtheseȱorganizations.ȱEssentially,ȱtheȱ wayȱinȱwhichȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱserveȱmultipleȱpurposesȱ simultaneouslyȱmakeȱthemȱcomprehensiveȱandȱcomplex,ȱasȱitȱ interlinksȱaȱrangeȱofȱvariousȱworkȱprocesses.ȱAsȱaȱconsequence,ȱ seeingȱalternativesȱforȱalterationsȱofȱtheȱsystems,ȱandȱmakingȱ thoseȱalterations,ȱalsoȱbecomesȱdemanding.ȱForȱinstance,ȱMonteiroȱ andȱRollandȱ(2012)ȱbringȱattentionȱtoȱhowȱalterationsȱinȱ
comprehensive,ȱgloballyȱspanningȱinformationȱsystemsȱareȱ difficult.ȱChangesȱinȱoneȱplaceȱmayȱcauseȱunintendedȱproblemsȱ elsewhere,ȱwhichȱleadȱtheȱorganizationȱtoȱcentrallyȱcontrolȱandȱ restrainȱchangesȱwithinȱtheȱorganization.ȱIȱsimilarlyȱexploreȱhowȱ theȱemployeesȱinȱNAVȱareȱfacingȱratherȱdominantȱinformationȱ systems,ȱwhichȱmakesȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱformallyȱinfluenceȱtheȱ designȱandȱworkingȱofȱtheȱsystemsȱlimited.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtinkeringȱ andȱinformalȱwaysȱofȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱformalȱprescriptionsȱofȱtheȱ systemȱbecomeȱeverȱmoreȱrelevant.ȱȱ
Onȱthisȱbasis,ȱIȱamȱconcernedȱwithȱhowȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱ becomeȱrelativeȱpowerfulȱactorsȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevelȱinȱNAV.ȱTheȱ informationȱsystemsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱrelativelyȱpowerfulȱinȱtheȱ senseȱthatȱtheȱNAVȱadvisor’sȱworkȱpracticesȱbothȱadhereȱto,ȱbutȱ alsoȱdeviateȱfrom,ȱtheȱprescriptionsȱofȱtheȱsystem.ȱThisȱisȱwhyȱIȱ termȱtheȱstandardizationȱofȱworkȱinȱthisȱcontextȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱ
“standardizedȱflexibility”.ȱInȱtheȱfollowingȱsection,ȱIȱfurtherȱ accountȱforȱhowȱthisȱneologismȱmayȱbeȱunderstood.ȱȱ
Standardized Flexibility
Thereȱisȱaȱsteadyȱpressureȱtoȱincreasinglyȱindividualizeȱpublicȱ services.ȱKernaghanȱ(2005)ȱdescribesȱforȱinstanceȱhowȱeffortsȱtoȱ createȱmoreȱ“integrated,ȱcitizenȬcentredȱservices”ȱareȱgainingȱaȱ strongȱfootholdȱinȱnumerousȱcountries.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱtheȱ servicesȱareȱsoughtȱtoȱbeȱorganizedȱinȱwaysȱthatȱplaceȱtheȱ individualȱclient’sȱsituationȱatȱtheȱcentre.ȱThus,ȱtheȱservicesȱareȱ essentiallyȱsoughtȱtoȱbeȱorganizedȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱ citizensȱratherȱthanȱtheȱgovernments,ȱandȱpublicȱresourcesȱareȱinȱ thisȱwayȱexpectedȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱeffectivelyȱutilized.ȱOtherȱlabelsȱthatȱ areȱusedȱtoȱcharacterizeȱsimilarȱtrendsȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱ publicȱservicesȱareȱ“joinedȬupȱgovernment”ȱ(Ling,ȱ2002)ȱandȱ
“wholeȬofȬgovernment”ȱ(Pollitt,ȱ2003).ȱȱTheseȱtrends,ȱandȱtheȱ accompanyingȱlabels,ȱunderscoreȱhowȱpublicȱservicesȱincreasinglyȱ attemptȱtoȱcooperateȱacrossȱformerlyȱverticallyȱorganizedȱ
programmesȱwithȱtheȱaimȱofȱsimplifyingȱandȱenhancingȱtheȱ qualityȱofȱtheȱservices.ȱDunleavy,ȱetȱal.,ȱ(2006)ȱuseȱtheȱtermȱ“needȬ basedȱholism”ȱandȱ“holisticȱandȱneedsȬorientedȱstructures”ȱtoȱ helpȱdrawȱattentionȱtoȱsimilarȱprocesses.ȱȱȱ
Asȱoutlined,ȱthisȱthesisȱdiscussesȱhowȱtheseȱtrendsȱtakeȱplaceȱ alongsideȱparallelȱdevelopments,ȱinȱwhichȱworkȱpracticesȱinȱtheȱ administrationȱofȱpublicȱservicesȱareȱincreasinglyȱenabled,ȱandȱ thusȱstandardizedȱthroughȱdigitalȱinformationȱsystems.ȱȱDunleavyȱ etȱal.,ȱ(2006)ȱfocusȱonȱtheȱsameȱintersection,ȱfindingȱthatȱtheȱ proliferationȱofȱICTȱinȱpublicȱservicesȱcreatesȱaȱconstellationȱofȱ ideasȱandȱchangesȱwhichȱtheyȱtermȱ“DigitalȱEraȬGovernment”.ȱ Fromȱtheseȱresearchers’ȱperspective,ȱincreasedȱdigitalizationȱisȱ assumedȱtoȱbeȱcompatibleȱorȱevenȱcruciallyȱsupportingȱeffortsȱtoȱ individualizeȱpublicȱservices.ȱȱ
Dunleavyȱetȱal.,ȱ(2006)ȱargueȱthatȱtheȱspreadȱofȱICTȱisȱaȱcentralȱ factorȱinȱaȱshiftȱawayȱfromȱNewȱPublicȱManagementȱ(NPM)ȱ towardsȱaȱ“postȱNPM”ȱwave.ȱȱTheyȱseeȱtheȱstrongȱverticalȱ organizationȱofȱNPMȱregimes,ȱwhichȱamongȱothersȱhasȱbeenȱ closelyȱlinkedȱtoȱaȱfocusȱonȱmanagementȱcontrolȱandȱperformanceȱ
measurement,ȱtoȱbeȱdiminishing.ȱItȱisȱarguedȱthatȱanȱincreasedȱ reintegrationȱofȱformerlyȱverticallyȱorganizedȱschemesȱoccurs,ȱandȱ ICTȱisȱseenȱasȱaȱcentralȱfacilitatorȱinȱthisȱrespect.ȱButȱoneȱcouldȱ lookȱdifferentlyȱatȱthis;ȱtheȱproliferationȱofȱICTȱatȱtheȱoperationalȱ levelȱinȱpublicȱservicesȱcanȱbeȱseenȱtoȱenableȱmanagementȱtoȱ increasinglyȱmonitorȱandȱcontrolȱemployees’ȱperformancesȱinȱaȱ moreȱdetailedȱmanner.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱtheȱproliferationȱofȱICTȱcanȱbeȱ seenȱtoȱprolongȱcentralȱNPMȱprinciples.ȱIȱseekȱtoȱproblematizeȱ howȱthisȱrelatesȱtoȱeffortsȱtoȱincreasinglyȱindividualizeȱpublicȱ services.ȱTheȱlatterȱcanȱbeȱseenȱtoȱrelyȱonȱaȱneedȱforȱenhancedȱ flexibilityȱinȱworkȱpracticesȱatȱtheȱoperationalȱlevel,ȱwhichȱisȱ linkedȱtoȱhowȱindividualȱadjustmentsȱrequireȱassessmentsȱandȱ decisionsȱbasedȱonȱdiscretionȱinsteadȱofȱrigidȱproceduresȱandȱ bureaucraticȱrulesȱ(Leidner,ȱ1993;ȱSundbo,ȱ2002).ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱ time,ȱpublicȱservicesȱareȱboundȱtoȱfollowȱlegalȱprinciplesȱandȱ ensureȱequalityȱofȱtreatment.ȱFlexibilityȱandȱdiscretionȱisȱthereforeȱ constrainedȱtoȱensureȱdueȱprocessȱandȱtoȱmeetȱdemandsȱforȱ efficiency.ȱDiscretionȱisȱtoȱbeȱexecutedȱtoȱaȱcertainȱextentȱinȱcertainȱ waysȱandȱwithinȱcertainȱlimits,ȱwhichȱIȱtermȱ“standardizedȱ flexibility”,ȱandȱIȱexploreȱtheȱroleȱofȱICTȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱfacilitatorȱofȱ thisȱstandardizedȱflexibility.ȱȱ
Hence,ȱbyȱfocusingȱonȱhowȱroutinesȱandȱtheȱstandardizationȱofȱ workȱpracticesȱisȱincreasinglyȱICTȬenabled,ȱIȱbringȱattentionȱtoȱ dilemmasȱinvolvedȱinȱstandardizingȱworkȱthroughȱICTȱwhenȱaȱ centralȱgoalȱisȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱtoȱenhanceȱdiscretion.ȱTheȱstudyȱ thusȱshedsȱlightȱonȱtheȱdualȱmissionȱofȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱtoȱ playȱaȱpartȱasȱbothȱanȱenablerȱsetȱtoȱenhanceȱflexibilityȱandȱasȱaȱ controllerȱofȱtheȱsame.ȱȱȱ
Discretion
Discretionȱisȱaȱrelativeȱconceptȱthatȱisȱhardȱtoȱdefine,ȱandȱIȱwantȱtoȱ stressȱhowȱdiscretionȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱantitheticalȱto,ȱbutȱatȱtheȱsameȱ timeȱasȱanȱingrainedȱpartȱof,ȱroutinesȱandȱruleȬboundȱpracticesȱ andȱdecisionȬmaking.ȱTheȱfollowingȱdefinitionȱisȱoftenȱreferredȱtoȱ
inȱeffortsȱtoȱdefineȱdiscretionȱinȱpublicȱservices:ȱȱ“Aȱpublicȱofficerȱ hasȱdiscretionȱwheneverȱtheȱeffectiveȱlimitsȱonȱhisȱpowerȱleaveȱ himȱfreeȱtoȱmakeȱaȱchoiceȱamongȱpossibleȱcoursesȱofȱactionȱorȱ inaction”ȱ(Davies,ȱ1969ȱquotedȱinȱHvinden,ȱ1994,ȱp.ȱ112).ȱInȱthisȱ way,ȱdiscretionȱmayȱbeȱseenȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱformalȱauthorityȱ grantedȱtoȱanȱofficerȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱandȱmeetȱdecisionsȱbasedȱonȱ hisȱorȱherȱjudgementȱwithinȱtheȱguidelinesȱofȱbureaucraticȱrulesȱ andȱroutines.ȱButȱdiscretionȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱinstancesȱ inȱwhichȱofficialsȱgoȱbeyondȱtheirȱformalȱauthorities,ȱandȱtakeȱ actionsȱorȱmeetȱdecisionsȱthatȱareȱnotȱinȱlineȱwithȱbureaucraticȱ rulesȱandȱsetȱprocedures.ȱToȱclarify,ȱthisȱmayȱbeȱtermedȱ“deviantȱ discretion”ȱ(Hvinden,ȱ1994,ȱp.ȱ116),ȱthoughȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱtheȱ bordersȱbetweenȱtheȱformerȱandȱtheȱlatterȱcanȱbeȱblurred.ȱ
Hvindenȱ(1994)ȱstudiedȱintegration,ȱorȱratherȱtheȱlackȱofȱ
integration,ȱinȱtheȱNorwegianȱwelfareȱbureaucracyȱaȱdecadeȱpriorȱ toȱtheȱNAVȱreform.ȱWhenȱexploringȱtheȱvariousȱtypesȱofȱ
discretionȱinȱtheȱformerȱseparateȱagencies,ȱHvindenȱdiffersȱ betweenȱprofessionalȱandȱadministrativeȱdiscretion,ȱreferringȱtoȱ professionalȱdiscretionȱasȱtheȱtypeȱofȱdiscretionȱexercisedȱonȱtheȱ basisȱofȱaȱspecificȱtypeȱofȱexpertiseȱdevelopedȱwithinȱaȱprofession.ȱ Administrativeȱdiscretionȱisȱusedȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱtypeȱofȱ discretionȱexercisedȱbyȱlayȱstaff.ȱTheȱlatterȱisȱgenerallyȱmoreȱ constrainedȱbyȱrules,ȱroutinesȱandȱguidelinesȱsinceȱthisȱdecisionȬ makingȱisȱnotȱanchoredȱinȱaȱsharedȱknowledgeȱbaseȱofȱ
professionalȱexpertise.ȱFurthermore,ȱthisȱseparationȱbetweenȱ administrativeȱandȱprofessionalȱdiscretionȱcanȱbeȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱ distinctionȱbetweenȱaȱsubsumptionȱwayȱofȱreasoningȱversusȱaȱ meansȬendȱrationalityȱinȱdecisionȱmaking.ȱTheȱNAVȱreformȱ entailsȱaȱdesiredȱshiftȱawayȱfromȱaȱsubsumptionȱwayȱofȱreasoningȱ towardsȱaȱmeansȬendȱrationalityȱinȱcentralȱserviceȱareasȱ(Heum,ȱ 2010).ȱInȱtheȱnewȱorganization,ȱtheȱfocusȱisȱideallyȱtoȱbeȱplacedȱonȱ theȱconsequencesȱofȱgrantingȱaȱbenefitȱinȱrelationȱtoȱaȱgivenȱ objectiveȱ(employment),ȱratherȱthanȱaȱnarrowȱfocusȱonȱtheȱclient’sȱ formalȱrights.ȱTheȱlatterȱmainlyȱconcernsȱanȱassessmentȱofȱ
whetherȱtheȱclientȱisȱeligibleȱforȱaȱschemeȱorȱnot.ȱTheȱruleȬboundȱ
characterȱofȱadministrativeȱdiscretionȱcorrelatesȱgenerallyȱtoȱtheȱ subsumptionȱrationalityȱinȱdecisionȬmaking,ȱwhereasȱmeansȬendȱ decisionȬmakingȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱmoreȱcomplexȱandȱuncertain,ȱandȱ thusȱmoreȱreliantȱonȱtheȱkindȱofȱunderlyingȱexpertiseȱthatȱinformsȱ professionalȱdiscretion.ȱ
TheȱissueȱofȱdiscretionȱinȱNAVȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱseenȱinȱrelationȱtoȱhowȱ theȱnewȱorganizationȱisȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱmergerȱbetweenȱthreeȱ formerȱseparateȱagencies:ȱ1)ȱtheȱnationalȱinsuranceȱservices,ȱ2)ȱtheȱ employmentȱservicesȱandȱ3)ȱpartsȱofȱtheȱmunicipalȱsocialȱservices.ȱ Withinȱtheȱlatter,ȱtheȱsocialȱservices,ȱtheȱcoreȱstaffȱgroupȱhasȱ consistedȱofȱprofessionallyȱtrainedȱsocialȱworkers,ȱwithȱthreeȱyearsȱ ofȱcollegeȱeducation.ȱInȱcontrast,ȱtheȱemploymentȱservicesȱandȱtheȱ nationalȱinsuranceȱservicesȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱsameȱprofessionalȱ anchoring.ȱTheseȱagenciesȱinitiallyȱemployedȱofficersȱwhoȱwereȱ internallyȱtrainedȱandȱgainedȱtheirȱcompetenceȱthroughȱworkȱ experienceȱ(Helgøy,ȱKildal,ȱ&ȱNilssen,ȱ2010;ȱHvinden,ȱ1994).ȱ Eventually,ȱtheseȱagenciesȱhaveȱstartedȱtoȱrecruitȱstaffȱwithȱaȱ mixedȱbackgroundȱfromȱaȱhigherȱeducationȱonȱtheȱcollegeȱandȱ universityȱlevel.ȱToȱaȱcertainȱhigherȱextent,ȱtheȱformerȱ
employmentȱservicesȱhaveȱrecruitedȱemployeesȱwithȱaȱhigherȱ educationȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱnationalȱinsuranceȱservices.4ȱ Discretion in the national insurance services
Theȱnationalȱinsuranceȱservicesȱrepresentȱtheȱagencyȱinȱwhichȱ subsumptionȱmodelsȱinȱcasesȱofȱprocessingȱhaveȱbeenȱmostȱ prevalent,ȱthusȱadministrativeȱdiscretionȱhasȱbeenȱdominant.ȱFirstȱ andȱforemost,ȱnationalȱinsuranceȱofficersȱhaveȱbeenȱresponsibleȱ forȱhandlingȱaȱcomprehensiveȱandȱcomplexȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱ basisȱofȱtheȱNationalȱInsuranceȱAct.ȱPerhapsȱaccordingly,ȱtheȱ organizationȱhasȱbeenȱhierarchicallyȱorganizedȱandȱlargelyȱ bureaucraticȱandȱruleȬbound.ȱȱ
4 Rambøll (2010) estimates that about 36 percent of the employees in the employment services in 2004 had completed a university or college education, compared with 27 percent of the employees in the National Insurance Services. In average 60 % of other Norwegian government employees have in comparison completed higher education.
Discretion in the Social Services
Byȱcontrast,ȱtheȱsocialȱservicesȱareȱadministratedȱunderȱtheȱ municipalityȱandȱnotȱtheȱcentralȱgovernment.ȱHence,ȱtheȱ organizationȱhasȱconsistedȱofȱsmallerȱunitsȱandȱtheȱorganizationȱ hasȱbeenȱlessȱbureaucraticȱandȱhierarchicallyȱorganizedȱcomparedȱ toȱtheȱcentrallyȱcontrolledȱnationalȱinsuranceȱservices.ȱAtȱtheȱ oppositeȱsideȱofȱtheȱscale,ȱtheȱsocialȱserviceȱisȱtheȱagencyȱinȱwhichȱ theȱmeansȬendȱrationalityȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱmostȱcentral.ȱThus,ȱ
professionalȱdiscretionȱhasȱdominated,ȱwhichȱisȱlinkedȱtoȱhowȱtheȱ socialȱworkerȱprofessionȱandȱformalȱeducationȱformsȱtheȱ
foundationȱofȱtheȱsocialȱservices.ȱȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheȱsocialȱserviceȱ employeesȱcanȱbeȱseenȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱgrantedȱmoreȱdiscretionalȱ authorityȱinȱcaseȱprocessing.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Discretion in the Employment Services
Whenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱdiscretionȱinȱcaseȱprocessing,ȱtheȱformerȱ employmentȱservicesȱcanȱbeȱplacedȱsomewhereȱinȱbetweenȱtheȱ formerȱnationalȱinsuranceȱservicesȱandȱtheȱsocialȱservices.ȱ
Therefore,ȱthisȱagencyȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱbeingȱcharacterizedȱbyȱaȱmixȱ betweenȱsubsumptionȱmodelsȱandȱaȱmeansȬendȱrationality.ȱAtȱtheȱ sameȱtime,ȱtheȱemploymentȱservicesȱresembleȱtheȱnationalȱ
insuranceȱservicesȱsinceȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱadministeredȱunderȱtheȱ centralȱgovernment,ȱandȱthusȱbeenȱmoreȱhierarchicallyȱandȱ bureaucraticallyȱorganized.ȱMoreover,ȱinȱtheȱsameȱway,ȱtheȱ employeesȱlackȱaȱsharedȱbasisȱinȱaȱprofessionȱwithȱaȱspecificȱ formalȱeducation.ȱInȱaddition,ȱcaseȱprocessingȱhasȱinȱtheȱ employmentȱservicesȱalsoȱbeenȱbasedȱinȱtheȱNationalȱInsuranceȱ Act,ȱbutȱhasȱnaturallyȱbeenȱconfinedȱtoȱtheȱserviceȱareasȱrelatedȱtoȱ workȱandȱemployment.ȱThus,ȱthereȱareȱtwoȱmainȱchaptersȱofȱtheȱ NationalȱInsuranceȱActȱthatȱhaveȱguidedȱtheȱcaseȱprocessingȱ withinȱtheȱemploymentȱservices.ȱȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheseȱservicesȱhaveȱ hadȱaȱmoreȱlimitedȱscope,ȱandȱadministeredȱaȱlessȱcomprehensiveȱ legislationȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱNationalȱInsuranceȱServices.ȱThisȱmayȱ allowȱforȱmoreȱofȱaȱfocusȱonȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱgrantingȱaȱ benefit,ȱhenceȱtheȱmeansȬendȱrationality.ȱTheȱmeansȬendȱ
rationalityȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱseenȱasȱmoreȱactiveȱinȱtheseȱservicesȱareasȱ
sinceȱtheyȱareȱguidedȱbyȱaȱclearȱobjective:ȱworkȱandȱemployment.ȱ Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱsubsumptionȱreasoningȱhasȱbeenȱimportantȱ sinceȱassessingȱeligibilityȱcriteriaȱhasȱalsoȱbeenȱaȱcentralȱpartȱofȱtheȱ employmentȱofficer’sȱdecisionȬmakingȱprocesses.ȱ
Discretion in NAV
Thisȱbalancedȱtakeȱonȱdiscretion,ȱwhichȱcharacterizedȱtheȱformerȱ employmentȱservices,ȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱbeingȱpursuedȱasȱanȱidealȱ withinȱtheȱserviceȱareasȱinȱNAVȱthatȱthisȱthesisȱempiricallyȱ focusesȱon,ȱwhichȱisȱmainlyȱtheȱworkȱassessmentȱallowanceȱ scheme.ȱThisȱisȱaȱrelativelyȱnewȱallowanceȱthatȱwasȱintroducedȱ withȱtheȱNAVȱreform.ȱOnȱoneȱlevel,ȱtheȱallowanceȱentailsȱaȱmoreȱ simplifiedȱsetȱofȱrulesȱbecauseȱitȱbringsȱtogetherȱthreeȱformerlyȱ separateȱbenefits:ȱvocationalȱbenefits,ȱrehabilitationȱbenefitsȱandȱ timeȬlimitedȱdisabilityȱpension.ȱȱ
Theȱpreviouslyȱseparateȱbenefitsȱfollowedȱcomplexȱproceduresȱforȱ theȱassessmentȱofȱeligibilityȱcriteria,ȱe.g.ȱwhenȱapplyingȱforȱ vocationalȱbenefits,ȱtheȱclientȱhadȱtoȱdocumentȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱ
“sick”ȱenoughȱtoȱqualifyȱforȱtheȱbenefit,ȱwhileȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱ
“healthy”ȱenoughȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱvocationalȱtraining.ȱȱWhenȱ applyingȱforȱrehabilitationȱbenefits,ȱtheȱclientsȱhadȱtoȱdocumentȱ thatȱtheyȱwereȱsickȱinȱwaysȱthatȱrequiredȱtreatment,ȱandȱinȱmanyȱ cases,ȱtheȱclient’sȱsituationȱwouldȱbeȱshiftingȱandȱcomplex,ȱwhichȱ couldȱimplyȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱtoȱshiftȱbackȱandȱforthȱbetweenȱtheȱ differentȱbenefitȱschemesȱ(Hernes,ȱHeum,ȱHaavorsen,ȱ&ȱSaglie,ȱ 2010).ȱThisȱmeantȱrepeatedȱtimeȬconsumingȱassessmentȱprocessesȱ withȱextensiveȱclaimsȱforȱdocumentation.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱclientȱhadȱ toȱdocumentȱanȱimageȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱsituationȱthatȱ“fitted”ȱtheȱ criteriaȱinȱtheȱdetailedȱlegislation.ȱWithȱthisȱsystem,ȱtheȱwelfareȱ bureaucratsȱspentȱconsiderableȱtimeȱandȱenergyȱonȱassessingȱ eligibilityȱcriteriaȱ(subsumption),ȱwhileȱhavingȱlimitedȱresourcesȱ toȱfocusȱonȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱgrantingȱaȱbenefitȱ(meansȬend).ȱ Moreȱresourcesȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheȱlatterȱwouldȱimplyȱthatȱtheȱ bureaucratȱcouldȱfocusȱonȱwhatȱtypeȱofȱmeasuresȱwouldȱbeȱ
adequateȱinȱaȱrehabilitationȱprocessȱorȱinȱrealizingȱtheȱclient’sȱ goal.ȱȱ
Withȱtheȱnewȱscheme,ȱtheȱworkȱassessmentȱallowance,ȱtheȱ eligibilityȱcriteriaȱareȱgenerallyȱtoȱbeȱassessedȱonlyȱonce.ȱToȱ qualifyȱforȱtheȱallowance,ȱitȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdocumentedȱthatȱtheȱ client’sȱabilityȱtoȱworkȱhasȱbeenȱimpairedȱbyȱatȱleastȱ50%ȱdueȱtoȱ illnessȱorȱinjury.ȱMoreover,ȱvariousȱpracticalȱmeasuresȱsuchȱasȱ education,ȱvocationalȱtrainingȱorȱrehabilitationȱmayȱmoreȱeasilyȱbeȱ mixedȱandȱmatchedȱandȱideallyȱimplementedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱ client’sȱneeds,ȱratherȱthanȱmerelyȱfollowingȱtheȱsanctioningȱofȱaȱ particularȱtypeȱofȱbenefit.ȱWhenȱreducedȱtoȱoneȱbenefit,ȱandȱoneȱ setȱofȱmoreȱsimplifiedȱrules,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱassessingȱeligibilityȱ criteriaȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱbeȱlessȱdemanding.ȱTheȱNAVȱadvisorsȱareȱ thenȱexpectedȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱdevotedȱtoȱfocusingȱonȱfindingȱsuitableȱ practicalȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱhelpȱfacilitateȱtheȱultimateȱgoalȱofȱ employment,ȱthusȱtheȱmeansȬendȱpartȱofȱhandlingȱaȱcase.ȱ
Theseȱchangesȱalsoȱimplyȱthatȱtheȱroomȱforȱdiscretionȱincreasesȱ dueȱtoȱmoreȱsimplified,ȱbutȱalsoȱmoreȱambiguousȱandȱunclearȱ rules.ȱȱThus,ȱtheȱdecisionȬmakingȱprocessesȱbecomeȱmoreȱcomplexȱ becauseȱtheȱnumberȱofȱalternativesȱwhichȱrepresentȱ“correct”ȱ decisionsȱincreases.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱnewȱallowanceȱentailsȱaȱshiftȱ towardsȱmoreȱofȱaȱmeansȬendȱrationalityȱandȱtowardsȱtheȱ
principlesȱofȱprofessionalȱdiscretion,ȱyetȱwithoutȱaȱbasisȱinȱanȱ establishedȱprofession.ȱTheȱquestionȱisȱthenȱhowȱtheȱorganizationȱ ensuresȱthatȱthisȱincreasedȱdiscretionȱisȱexercisedȱwithȱcautionȱorȱ inȱaccordanceȱtoȱtheȱorganization’sȱintentions.ȱTheȱanswerȱinȱNAVȱ seemsȱtoȱlieȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱstandardized,ȱcommonȱworkȱ modelsȱ(Helgøyȱetȱal.,ȱ2010),ȱwhichȱareȱenabledȱthroughȱdigitalȱ informationȱsystems.ȱȱ
Inȱrelationȱtoȱstudiesȱofȱflexibilityȱandȱdiscretionȱinȱcommercialȱ services,ȱLeidnerȱ(1993)ȱarguesȱthatȱcustomizedȱservicesȱrelyȱonȱaȱ considerableȱamountȱofȱroomȱforȱdiscretionȱamongȱfrontlineȱ employees.ȱAccordingȱtoȱLeidner,ȱtheȱemployerȱmayȱthen,ȱ“Tryȱtoȱ
transformȱtheirȱworkersȱintoȱtheȱsortsȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱwillȱmakeȱ decisionsȱthatȱtheȱemployersȱwouldȱapprove”ȱ(Leidner,ȱ1993,ȱp.ȱ 37).ȱTheȱcommonȱworkȱmodelsȱinȱNAVȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱexamplesȱofȱ this,ȱasȱtheseȱcommonȱworkȱmodelsȱentailȱdecisionȱandȱ
assessmentȱpathwaysȱthatȱassuminglyȱleadȱtheȱemployeesȱtoȱ approachȱcasesȱandȱclientsȱinȱcertainȱ(desired)ȱways.ȱInȱturn,ȱthisȱ canȱarguablyȱleadȱtoȱaȱparticularȱkindȱofȱreasoningȱwhichȱenablesȱ theȱemployeeȱtoȱmeetȱaȱsensibleȱdecisionȱevenȱifȱtheȱruleȱwhichȱ informsȱtheȱdecisionȱopensȱforȱaȱvarietyȱofȱpossibleȱoutcomes.ȱInȱ NAV,ȱtheȱassessmentȱprocedureȱ“workȬcapacityȱassessment”ȱisȱaȱ centralȱexampleȱofȱthis,ȱandȱIȱwillȱanalyseȱtheȱroleȱofȱthisȱ
procedureȱinȱdetailȱinȱChapterȱ6.ȱȱ
Sociomateriality and Technology
However,ȱmyȱparticularȱconcernȱisȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱ theseȱcommonȱworkȱmodelsȱareȱenabledȱthroughȱcomprehensiveȱ digitalȱinformationȱsystems.ȱIȱthusȱreasonȱasȱfollows:ȱTheȱ
developmentȱofȱstandardizedȱworkȱmodelsȱinȱNAVȱcanȱbeȱ expectedȱtoȱplayȱaȱcentralȱpartȱinȱensuringȱthatȱanȱincreasedȱroomȱ forȱdiscretionȱinȱtheȱrulesȱguidingȱtheȱservicesȱisȱhandledȱwithȱ care.ȱSinceȱtheseȱnewȱworkȱmodelsȱareȱenabledȱthroughȱtheȱ organization’sȱdigitalȱinformationȱsystems,ȱtheȱinformationȱ systemsȱwillȱsubsequentlyȱplayȱaȱcentralȱroleȱinȱhowȱtheseȱnewȱ workȱmodelsȱareȱrealizedȱinȱpractice.ȱTheȱinformationȱsystemsȱareȱ thereforeȱsetȱtoȱlimitȱtheȱincreasedȱdiscretionȱthatȱfollowsȱtheȱ introductionȱofȱworkȱassessmentȱallowances.ȱHence,ȱitȱisȱthisȱroleȱ ofȱtheȱinformationȱsystemsȱasȱaȱcontroller,ȱbutȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱasȱ anȱenablerȱofȱincreasedȱdiscretion,ȱthatȱIȱtermȱ“standardizedȱ flexibility”.ȱȱȱȱ
Iȱfurtherȱexploreȱthisȱstandardizedȱflexibilityȱasȱsociomaterialȱ (Orlikowski,ȱ2007;ȱOrlikowskiȱ&ȱScott,ȱ2008).ȱȱThisȱconceptȱrefersȱ toȱaȱstreamȱofȱresearchȱthatȱdrawsȱonȱinsightsȱdevelopedȱwithinȱ scienceȱandȱtechnologyȱstudiesȱ(STS).ȱTheȱnotionȱofȱ
sociomaterialityȱchallengesȱtheȱtakenȱforȱgrantedȱontologicalȱ
separationȱbetweenȱmaterialityȱandȱtheȱsocial,ȱarguingȱinsteadȱforȱ anȱ“ontologicalȱfusion”ȱorȱaȱ“relationalȱontology”ȱ(Orlikowskiȱ&ȱ Scott,ȱ2008).ȱThisȱentailsȱanȱassumptionȱthatȱtheȱsocialȱandȱ materialȱareȱinextricablyȱrelated,ȱandȱtheȱboundariesȱareȱseenȱasȱ fluid,ȱshiftingȱandȱblurred,ȱalthoughȱthisȱisȱnotȱtheȱsameȱasȱsayingȱ thatȱthereȱareȱnoȱboundaries.ȱTheȱpointȱisȱratherȱtoȱstressȱthatȱtheȱ boundariesȱareȱtoȱbeȱseenȱasȱperformedȱorȱenacted,ȱandȱnotȱpreȬ givenȱandȱfixedȱ(Barad,ȱ2003).ȱBaradȱ(2003,ȱp.ȱ815)ȱrefersȱtoȱsuchȱ enactmentsȱasȱ“agentialȱcuts”.ȱPeopleȱactingȱinȱtheȱworld,ȱeitherȱasȱ researchersȱorȱinȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱgoȱaboutȱtheirȱdailyȱactivities,ȱmakeȱ conceptualȱandȱpracticalȱ“cuts”ȱthatȱseparateȱmaterialityȱfromȱtheȱ social.ȱȱTheseȱ“agentialȱcuts”ȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱingrainedȱinȱtheȱwayȱ weȱactȱandȱmakeȱsenseȱofȱtheȱworldȱȬȱwhenȱ“cuts”ȱareȱmade,ȱ boundariesȱareȱdrawnȱandȱdichotomiesȱareȱconstructedȱ(Faulknerȱ
&ȱRunde,ȱ2012).ȱȱInȱthisȱthesis,ȱIȱhighlightȱhowȱtheȱboundariesȱthatȱ areȱdrawnȱwhenȱpeopleȱtalkȱaboutȱtechnologyȱdifferȱfromȱtheȱ boundariesȱthatȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱsurfaceȱthroughȱtheȱobservationȱofȱ workȱpractices.ȱThus,ȱIȱexploreȱhowȱtechnologyȱisȱenactedȱinȱ practice,ȱwhichȱisȱenabledȱbyȱtheȱsociomaterialȱpointȱofȱdeparture.ȱ Withȱtheȱnotionȱofȱsociomateriality,ȱitȱisȱassumedȱthatȱ“thereȱisȱnoȱ socialȱthatȱisȱnotȱalsoȱmaterial,ȱandȱnoȱmaterialȱthatȱisȱnotȱalsoȱ social”ȱ(Orlikowski,ȱ2007,ȱp.ȱ1437).ȱInȱtermsȱofȱtechnology,ȱ materialityȱisȱsocialȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱitȱhasȱbeenȱcreatedȱinȱsocialȱ processes,ȱandȱitȱisȱusedȱandȱinterpretedȱbyȱhumans.ȱMoreover,ȱ theȱsocialȱisȱmaterialȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱallȱsocialȱactionȱisȱembeddedȱ inȱsomeȱkindȱofȱmaterialityȱ(Leonardi,ȱ2012).ȱȱ
Thisȱthesisȱexploresȱtheȱroleȱofȱcomprehensiveȱdigitalȱinformationȱ systems,ȱwhichȱareȱsystemsȱusedȱtoȱenter,ȱstore,ȱprocessȱandȱ transmitȱinformation.ȱTheyȱincludeȱbothȱsocialȱandȱmaterialȱ components,ȱwhichȱtogetherȱareȱmeantȱtoȱenableȱcontrolȱandȱ decisionȱmakingȱsupportȱonȱbothȱanȱoperationalȱandȱmanagementȱ level.ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱtheseȱsystemsȱareȱsociomaterial,ȱandȱtheȱ workȱpracticesȱofȱtheȱemployeesȱfocusedȱonȱinȱtheȱstudyȱareȱ deeplyȱingrainedȱinȱtheseȱsystems.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱtheȱthesisȱexploresȱ theȱsociomaterialȱshapingȱofȱworkȱpractices.ȱȱ