FAFO - SOTECO

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Gudmund Hernes and Knud Knudsen

LITHUANIA LIVING CONDITION8

A Sociological Study

The secession of the Republic ol Lithuania from the Soviet Union and the profound changes that have swept the Baltie republic with an almost inconceivable speed, epitomises the historie drama oftransition that is still unfolding in Eastern Europe .

. At the outset of a re-emerging nation's life this book presents a snapshot of Lithuania in the midst of transformation from I'ancien to the new regime. Based on a representative sample ofthe adult population from 1990 it is a baseline study that captures the conditions and variations in social and economic life along dimensions as: population, health, education, employment and work-place conditions, income and economic resources, housing, social relations and leisure time activities, crime, social conflict and public opinion.

Authors are: Professor Gudmund Hernes, FAFO research director, currently Norwegian Minister of Research and Education and Professor Knud Knudsen, FAFO Associate Researcher, in collaboration with FAFO Researcher Karl- Anders Bilstad and FAFO Associate Researchers Vytautas ~iUkas and Rasa Ziburkut~.

9¹¹788274¹¹220737

The President of Lithuania,

Vytautas Landsbergis with FAFO Directors Terje Rød Larsen and Gudmund Hernes at FAFO 30th of August 1990.

A FAFO - SOTECO report

I~BN: 82-7422-073-0

Norwegian Trade Union Centre for Social Science and Research Fossveien 19, N-OSS1 Oslo Tel.: (02) 71 6000

A Sociological

FAFO - SOTECO

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Gudmund Hernes and Knud Knudsen in collaboration with Kalle Bilstad, Vytautas

Z

iukas, Rasa

Z

iburkute

LITHUANIA

Living Conditions. A Sociological Study

A FAFO-SOTECO report

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ISBN 82-7422-073-0

Cover design: Tor Berglie

Printed at PDC Printing Data Center as, Aurskog

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Preface

In a mist y september-morning in 1989, a group of Norwegian social scientists arrived with the night train from Moscow to the main railway station in Vilnius.

Together with the director of the recently established Soviet-Norwegian joint venture SOTECO, dr. Oleg Shahnazarov, our burly host dr. Vytautas ZiUkas in the early morning hours expertly guided the party on slippery roads through the rolling hills surrounding Lithuania' s capital and the marvelous old city itself.

For the Norwegians, these were the first intriguing glimpses of the Baltic republic of Lithuania. The discussions that followed, with politicians and trade unionists, resulted in the development of the first ever full scale level of living study carried out in what was then a part of the geopolitical entity called the Soviet Union.

The secession of the Republic of Lithuania from the Soviet Union and the profound changes that have swept the Baltic republic with an almost inconceivable speed, epitomizes the historic drama of transition that is still unfolding in Eastern Europe.

At the outset of a re-emerging nations' s, life this book presents a snapshot of Lithuania in the midst of transformation from l' anden to the new regime.

Based on a representative sample of the adult population from 1990, it is a baseline study that captures the conditions and variations in sodal and economic life along dimensions as: population, health, education, employ

ment and workplace conditions, income and economic resources, housing, sodal relations and lei sure time activities, crime, social conflict and public opinion.

FAFO wants to thank all Lithuanian and Norwegian sodal scientists, politicians, trade unionists and civil servants for their generously cumulative contribution to the background of this book. Without innumerable contacts, discussions, negotiations - and much pleasant sociability with them over the years - it would never have been conceived or written.

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Parlicular thanks goes to E. KliuCinskas and A. K vedaraiviCius, who besides providing invaluable inputs to the work, also signed the agreement of the study on behalf of the Lithuanian side. V. Safjan participated actively in preparing the data for analysis.

Mr. Øyvind Nordsletten of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has supplied invaluable support and encouragement. The Ministry has kindly and generously provided funding for all costs on the Norwegian side.

Jon Lahlum of FAFO is thanked for his overbearing patience and efficient handling of the three language manuscripts: Lithuanian, Russian and English.

Last but not least FAFO is deeply indebted to the director of SOTECO, dr. Oleg Shahnazarov, for efficiently and competently handling the organizational tasks of planning and setting up a complicated fieldor

ganisation. This also goes for Vytautas Ziiikas who intelligently and energetically supervised and managed the field operations.

Terje Rød Larsen Director, FAFO

Oslo, 2nd of December 1991

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Chapter 1 Neighbors in Northern Europe

This report is an analysis of living conditions in Lithuania, mainly based on a representative sample of the adult population from 1 990. The aim is to take a "snapshot" that captures variations in social and economic life.

Such a picture can be used in three ways:

1. To analyze variations in liv ing conditions among population groups. A

better understanding of social inequalities can help bring about targeted efforts to improve living conditions for deprived groups, as weU as for the population as a whole.

2. To provide a starting point or "base line "for future studies and actions.

This study may function as a yardstick against which developments can be evaluated in years to come.

3. To compare Lithuanian social life with other countries, such as the Scandinavian ones. By modeUing this study after previous Norwegian surveys, it may serve as a basis for cross-national comparison.

The first and second points are increasingly important in light of developments in recent years on the national level. It will be a crucial task for Lithuania in the future to further improve general living conditions as weU as the functioning of its main social institutions. The third point is essential in the context of a changing Europe. By looking to neighboring members of the European family, nations can leam from each other and thereby develop a more thorough understanding of where they are heading individually and collectively.

A picture taken at one point in time has limited significance unless placed within a frame of reference of some kind. In a study of present-day

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Lithuania a relevant perspective could be provided by going back half a century or so, to the time before Annexation. At that time both Lithuania and Norway were independent European states and members of The League of Nations. To provide a background for the analyses in the chapters to follow, a summary of the situation in both countries towards the end of the thirties as weU as developments later on, will be given in the next section. Such a survey must necessarily be sketchy. Readers who want more detailed analyses are referred to standard textbooks in the international literature, such as Rauch ( 1 974) and Misiunas and Taagepera ( 1 983).

Cross-national comparisons can give a broader basis for understanding observed patterns in present Lithuania. When possible and relevant, findings from Lithuania will therefore be compared to Norwegian and other data. However, this report is not intended to be an exhaustive or systematie comparative study as such. The main focus is on living conditions in Lithuania. In cases where comparisons may enhanee interpretations, Norwegian findings will be presented along with the Lithuanian.

The mapping of living conditions in quantitative terms by representative samples can provide considerable systematic information. However, the survey method has disadvantages as weU as advantages. Moreover, special problems occur when the scope is widened to inc1ude cross-national analyses. At the end of this chapter some limitations linked to the approach chosen are outlined. Again the presentation must be short. Those interested in a more detailed discussion are advis ed to look at the last two chapters (on social reporting and the main data source), as well as acknowledged social science literature on comparative studies.

Lithuania and Norway before and after 1940

Lithuania is part of the Baltic-Scandinavian region consisting of the Baltic states, Finland and the Scandinavian countries. The area also belongs to the large East European Plain stretching from Russia to Northern Germany. The hilly uplands come from vast accumulations of glacial drift, left behind by melting inland ice in ancient times. The lower plains were formed by ice lobes where the surface had been covered with ground

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moraine. When the inland ice retreated, the lowlands were covered with melt-water sediments in many places.

The climate has a continental character for the most part, with an average temperature of +6 degrees Celsius, varying from a mean of -4. 8 degrees in January to + 1 7.6 i n July. Average yearly precipitation i s around six hundred millimeters. There are many rivers and streams, more than seven hundred of them longer than ten kilometers, and about twenty longer than one hundred kilometers. The largest one is Nemunas - over nine hundred kilometers long, of which about five hundred belong to Lithuania.

A large portion of the country is covered by grasslands of different types, while one third of the territory is woodland. The wildlife is rich, with over four hundred species of vertebrates, more than sixty mammals, nearly three hundred birds, and about sixty types of fish.Lithuania is a small country with a long and dramatic history, a strong national culture, and one of the oldest languages still spoken.

Archeological evidence of the first inhabitants - nomadic hunters - of the territory of Lithuania dates back to the late Paleolithic period, i.e.

around ten thousand years B .C. In European his tory the Grand Duchy of Lithuania played a central role from the early twelfth to the mid-fifteenth century , reaching its peak of influence and prosperity after the turn of the fifteenth century, under Vytautas the Great.

Before 1940

Lithuania, the southernmost of the B altic states, celebrated its twentieth year as an independent nation in 1 938, despite internal conflicts and external difficulties in the aftermath of the First World War.

The country is placed near the geographical and political centers of Europe, in between great powers such as Germany, Poland and the Soviet Union. Before 1940, with the Vilnius area still under Polish rule, the land area covered approximately fifty-six thousand square kilometers (today:

sixty-five thousand). This is less than one fifth of Norway and somewhat more than Denmark. At that time about eighty percent of the population were Lithuanians proper. As man y as seven percent were Jews, while three to four percent were of German origin and three percent were Poles (See Figure 1 . 1 , based on 1 923 data) . With Vilnius area included these estimates would be somewhat different, particularly for the Poles who se percentage then would be severai times higher. In contrast to protestant Estonia and Latvia, Lithuanians for the most part were (and are) Roman

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Catholics. This is mainly a consequence of the country's earlier long ties to Poland.

With its previous nobility and large landowners Lithuania has a history of less than egalitarian class relation . It wa always a farming country,

knOWL1 to have bad the most productive land in the old Russian Empire.

When Lithuania became independent i n L91 8 the agricultural sector had been deva^stated and wa badly organized as consequence of the war. A small nobility and landowner class possessed more than one third of Lithuanian lands, while at the same time thirty percent of the rural population owned no land at all. FuUy three quarters of the employed population worked in agriculture (See Figure 1.2, based on 1923 data).

Hard times forced many to leave the country, most of them emigrating to U.S.A.

This situation changed substantially during the twenties and thirties, as a res ult of far-reaching land reforms and Governrnent-initiated efforts to modemize agricultural production. International statistics from this period show that the production per hectare of rye, wheat, barley, oats and potatoes compared favorably with such nations as Franee and Poland, though it was still behind countries like Denmark and Belgium (See Figure 1.3, for a few selected products and countries 1 937). During these years Lithuania became a large exporter of foodstuffs as weU as livestock.

Figure 1 . 1 Nationalities in Lithuania befare 1940

%

100 ,---�

80

60

40 20

o

Lithuanians Jews

Source: Official Lithuanian statistics

Germans Poles Russians Other

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Lithuania had liUle industry prior to 1 91 8, with few large factories except for such faeilities as a metal production plant in Kaunas and a leather faetory in Siauliai. Raw materials sueh as lumber were exported and processed abroad. The same was true of meat and dairy produets. In 1 91 3 about three thousand eompanies were registered, most of them with only one or two employees. After the First World War, these produetion units were in bad shape though the situation gradually improved during the next two deeades. The number of eompanies rose from two and half thousand in 1 920 to around sixteen thousand in 1 93 9 (See Figure 1 .4). The companies, of whieh the majority were still very small, increased in average size, and the number employees in factories with more than five employees increased from around twenty thousand in 1 930 to about thirty thousand in 1 93 9. Most of the production units were in food proeessing, c10thing and shoemaking, as weU as mining and other primary sectors.

Lithuanian firms inc1uded privately owned firms as wel1 as Govemment

owned firms and co-operatives.

During this period new social policies were adopted, inc1uding an official eight-hour work day in severai industries. In the early thirties industrial workers were granted paid holidays (ten to twelve days). Similar arrangements became mandatory in other economie seetors. Health insuranee was organized regionally and linked to Ioeal companies and

Figure 1 . 2 Employed persons by economic sector, Lithuania 1923

%

100 .---, 80 �---�

60

4 0

2 0

o

Agriculture I ndustry Transports Trade etc Public servo Other

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labor union. Severai rev I lon of law and regu)ation improved the y tem makjng healtb insurance to a large extent mandatory. Furthennore new pen ion law weIe passed. etting retirement age in most cases to

ixty year f age. After twenty five yearsin the work force retired workers were in principJe granted a pen ion amounting to ixty percent of average wages.

A pioneering, thollgh lirnited hOllsehold .urvey wa carrjed out in

]936-37, ^.howing an average in orne [rom main job of ^nearly ^three thou. and Lits. Typically the main breadwinner of the famiJy at tbat time was the man bringing home on the average abOUl ninety percent of the family s totaJ income. Familie spent between half and one third of their incomes on fo d. Comparative data how d that the calory cent Ilt of food eaten by a typical Lithuanian family was higher than in France, Sovjet Russia, ltaly and Tw�key.

By the end of the ^thi^rties lhe p pu/anon numbered approximately two miUon ix hundred tbOll and inhabitants (Vilniu. area excluded Kleipcda included). Kauna the capital at that time, situated outh in the middle had a population of about one hundred and fifty-thollsand jnhabjtanl .

Figure 1.3 Lithuania compared: Productivity in the agricultural sector 193 7

PRODUCTION UNITS PER HA.

35 �---�

30 • Rye

• Wheat

25 • Barley 1---

20 �---

1 5�---�

1 0 5 O

Lithuania Franee Denmark

Source: International statistics

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After 1940

It is said that the Baltic states won their independence as an outcome of the First World War and lost it again in the Second. In 1 940 Lithuania was annexed by the USSR and declared a Soviet Socialist Republic. This was done under an agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union, bascd on the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact of 1939. Arrests and deportations followed. In June 1 94 1 a large-scale operation was carried out, resulting in tens of thousands of Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians being deported. These deportations were directed against the political and social elites. Shortly afterwards, in July 1 942, the Soviet Union was attacked by Hitler-Germany and the B altic countries came under German occupation.

During the war years, the population suffered terrors and killings on a massive scale. Most of the two hundred thousand Jews lost their lives.

The first post-war years were marked by further deportations, particu

larly in connection with the collectivizing of the agrarian sector. Estimates of total deaths and disappearances resulting from the Second World War and the deportations under Stalin vary and are still being debated.

However, in severai cases they indicate losses between one fourth and one third of the population. Whatever the correct figure the conclusion must be the same: during this period the Lithuanian nation lost a substantial proportion of her population. Taking wartime figures only, it is also clear Figure 1.4 Number of companies in Lithuania by year

NUMBER OF C OMPANlES (TH OUSANDS)

20 ,---,

1 5�---

1 0�---

5�---

o

1 920 1 930 1 940

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that Lithuania together with the other B altic states suffered some of the largest losses in Europe (See Misuinas and Taagepera, 1983).

The socialist transformation of Lithuania meant abolition of private ownership of means of production, collectivization of the agrarian sector and large scale industrialization. Along with this went the implementation of Soviet rule in most social, political and economic matters. As a republic the country was made an integral part of the larger Soviet structure, to a considerable ex tent govemed from Moscow. Typically the educational system was subjected to three basic elements of Soviet policy: a) centralization, b) standardization and c) striking a balanee between providing improved opportunities for the working classes while securing a trained labor force.

Lithuania enjoyed steady economic growth during the decades following The Second World War, as did other East European satellites.

Many new factories were built and the country' s industrial base broadened.

Soviet Lithuania had access to raw materials, machineries and equipment at low prices. This proeess transforrned the country into a relatively modem industrialized state. The agrarian sector was also modernized, resulting in production levels in the mid sixties surpassing those of pre

war times. The educational system was greatly expanded and improved, bringing better education to previously deprived social groups and raising the general ievel of education. Women' s participation in the labor force and education went up. However, the extensive integration of the Lithuanian economy into the larger system of republics made the country increasingly dependant on the Soviet Union, with only limited possibilities for basic changes or local initiative.

A independent nation was the main goal for the country' s struggle in recent years, particularly after democratic elections were held and The Declaration of Independence announced in March 1 990. The dramatic changes in the Soviet Union after August 1 99 1 cleared the path for such a development, in Lithuania as weU as in the other two Baltic states.

Norway

Norway lies on the geographical and political fringe of Europe. The country has a long and rugged coastline. The distance from the northem

most to the southemmost point is 1 752 _km.The land covers 323 ,000 square kilometers not including Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Jan Mayen.

Long fjords and high mountains are characteristic features of the

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landscape. Norway borders Sweden, Finland and the Soviet Union (in the north) . Historically the population is very homogenous, nearly all are white, and most (at least formally) are members of the Lutheran state church. The largest ethnic minority are the Lapps who in this century number less than one percent of the population.

Norway has a history of egalitarian dass relations, going back to the time even before industrialization and the rise of the labor movement.

There was never a strong aristocracy or a large dass of landowners. This was partly due to the topography, criss-crossed as it is by fjords and steep mountains, and the faet that Norway for five eenturies, up to 1 905, was under foreign rule. Traditionally the economy was based extensively on small independent peasants who combined agrieulture, fishing and sometimes forestry. During the twenties and early thirties Norway, along with other countries, was hit by an economic depression that halted further industrialization and kept many on the family farms. This was a period marked by a rise in dass eonflicts and steady growth of the labor movement in rural and urban areas.

Before 1940

By the end of the thirties Norway had a populations of about three million people. The capital city of Oslo, situated in the southeast, numbered dose Figure 1.5 Men employed in Norway by economic sector, 1937

35 .---�

30 25 20

1 5 1 0 5

o

Agriculture Fisheries Industry Transports 'Trade etc. Professions Other

Source: Official Norwegian statistics

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to four hundred tbollsand inhabitants, inc1uding the surrounding areas.

About one lhi rd of the work force was still employed in agriculture, whi1e one fourth worked in .industry (See Figure 1 .5 for men, 1 937). The most important export were lil l traditional products from the primary eetors.

sucb ^a Jumber and fi. h (Figure 1.6, 1 937). Norway had la_rge ea fj hedes eatching about as mueh the United Ki ngdom though less tllan

J^apan^, U.S.A and Korea (Cf. Figure 1. ^, 1935). Th Norwegian whale

fi heri es were the second large L in _theworld (S e Figure 1.7 Produetion of Wbale Oi l J 9 7). A relatively large merchant fleet aboullhe ame size

as Japan's, already played a crucial role in securing much-needed foreign currency. Steel and certain metals, oil, minerals, machines, e1ectrical appliances and c10thing figured heavily on the import list. Still, a large proportion of necessary foodstuffs such as meat, eggs, wheat and potatoes were produced inside the country.

After 1940

In 1 940 Norway wa occupied by Germany , an occupation that lasted for five year ^.The occllpation m u ^·tbe labcJed a mild when eompared with most _othero_ccupied regi n particularly in Eastem Europe. Approximate-

Figure 1 . 6 Norwegian main exports by value 1 936

MILLION KRONERS

200 �---�

1 50

1 00

50

o

Wood pulp Fish prod Mineral, mets. Skins, anim.pr.

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ly ten thousand Norwegians altogether (one third of one percent) lost their lives in war activities. Of the country' s fifteen hundred Jews half were sent to German concentration camps, where nearly all died.

Class conflicts, political differences and competing interests that had been growing during the thirties, were played down in wartime. After the war a bro ad consensus on the main objectives of the free nation emerged.

The immediate goal was to rebuild the economy and develop a new industrial base. It became a joint task above and beyond group interests to unite in rebuilding the nation. Many activities were orchestrated under the government' s Reconstruction Program. Efforts were concentrated in the northern parts of the country where considerable destruction was inflicted by the withdrawing occupants.

The Reconstruction program and subsequent developments could best be titled "organized capitalism" in a "mixed economy" . This implied selective state regulation of market forces, using government budgets to systematically direct the economy, still allowing for private ownership and initiative. The fifties and the sixties were characterized by steady economic growth, both in traditional sectors as weU as new industries. The industrial buildup was partly carried out by direct government involvement (as in the steel and aluminum industry), often in partnership with large multi national

Figure 1 . 7 Norway compared: Production of whale oil 193 7

METRICTONS (TH OUSANDS)

250 �---.

200

1 50

1 00

50

o

United Kingd. Norway Japan Germany USA

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corporations. Cooperation with foreign companies was frequently bas ed on Norway providing relatively inexpensive electricity, produced by hydroelectric power plants, while the other side provided technology and know-how. During this period there was also a solid growth in the nation's shipbuilding industry as weU as other industrial sectors.

It was also a period of urbanization and rationalization in the primary sectors. Many left farms or fishing boats for a better paid job in the city.

The dass struggle was waged mainly at the negotiation table, though, between representatives of employers and employees (See Ramsøy, 1 974).

The democratic socialist era of the two first decades after the war induded a massive buildup and reshaping of the educational system.

Educational policies together with a progressive taxsystem and gradual expansion of a publidy financed "safety net" (Health-care, pensions, economic support for needy groups, etc) were comerstones of a modem welfare state.

A vital new element in the Norwegian economy from the middle of the seventies and onward was the discovery of oil in the North Sea. During the eighties Norway became an "oil producing nation" on the world scene.

This is one of the reasons why Norway in recent years is of ten ranked among the upper ten on the list of the world's richest nations, according

Figure 1.8 Norway compared: Fisheries 1935

3500 3000 2500 2000 1 500 1 000 500 O

METRIC TONS (THOUSANDS)

Japan USA

Korea United Kingd. Norway

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to gross national product per capita (GNP). In comparison the ranking of Lithuania as a former Soviet republic has been around the sixtieth to seventieth place.

Summary and Outlook

Lithuania amI Norway are two mali European countries of aboul the. ame ize (Norway above four million people Lithuania below), fairly elo e in geographical distance and hi torically dependent on their pJimary ector..

Before _{1 940}they were both independent nations. Still Lithuania wa les

i ndu tlialized than Norway, aod her population had suffered more

Figure 1 . 9 The Lithuanian population 1 923

AGE M E N

GROUPS WOMEN

85 ⁺ 80- 84 7 5-79 70-74 6 5-69 60-64 55- 59 50- 54 4 5-49 40-44 3 5-39 30 -34 2 5-29 20-24 1 5-1 9 1 0-1 4 5-9 0-4

1 40 1 20 1 00 80 60 40 20 O 20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 000 PERSONS

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hardships following turbulent times and war, particularly at the beginning of this century. Such differences in living conditions on a general ievel are demonstrated in the population pyramids for the two countries, shown in Figures 1 .9- 1 . 1 0 (Lithuania, 1 923 ; Norway, 1 930, partly approximated).

In brief, the more gradual narrowing and weU proportioned Norwegian figure indicates more stable times and better average living conditions. It is interesting however, to observe the decrease in the very youngest age groups in Norway after the beginning of the economic depression in the twenties. For Lithuania the marked decrease of age group 5-9 together with a large increase in newborns (0-4), reflects the negative consequences

Figure 1. 10 The Norwegian population 1930

AGE GROUPS

85 ⁺ 80- 84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 1 5-1 9 1 0- 14 5 -9 0-4

MEN WOME N

1 60 140 1 20 1 00 80 6 0 40 20 O 2 0 40 6 0 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 000 PERSONS

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of war, then later the optimistie mood in independent Lithuania (For more about interpreting such data, see also next chapter).

After 1 940 the history of the two nations were very different. Although occupied by the Germans, Norway suffered fairly mild losses during The Second World War. The post-war rebuilding proeess was undertaken by a united people in a free democracy. The first decades after the war were devoted to creating a modem industrialized we1fare state, to a large ex tent based on social democratic ideology and backed by a national consensus on major issues.

Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union even before the war. The war itself, together with early and later deportations took a heavy toll on the population. Still, a new and modem industrialized state was built much in the same mold as other Soviet republics on the mins of war. During the last decades various signs of stagnation became increasingly clear, however. The sudden developments in the Soviet Union in the fall of 1 99 1 resulted in the B altie states again becoming independent nations. This fundamental change in basic conditions for social and economic life should make a study like the one presented in the following even more relevant.

Both Lithuania and Norway are in the proeess of finding their places within a new and different European stmcture. The present study of living conditions in Lithuania should be seen against the background of past history as weU as of promising changes.

Limitations of this Study

The survey approach for studying living conditions has prov en a valuable analytical tool in Scandinavia and in other countries over the last two decades. It has provided politicians and planners with varied and precise information as a basis for decision making. Despite its many advantages this method does have its shortcomings. Three points should be empha

sized.

First, it is a general approach best suited for giving a bird's eye view of the overall situation and variations among main groups at a given point in time. Analyses of developments in smalliocal regions, special groups or individuals are of ten better served by anthropological or historical methods.

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Secondly, this approach is based on quantitative measurements. In many cases this is critical for providing accurate knowledge of general tendencies and differences. However, many qualitative aspects may be lost behind numbers and computations. For instance, one can number the friends a person has, yet still it is difficult to describe the more profound characteristics of friendship. Or one may count the number of doctors or the number of visits to the physician, but a given figure can conceal substantial variations in medical skill or the actual quality of a consulta

tion.

Thirdly, measurements are structured and standardized. Questions are asked in the same order and in an identical manner to all respondents. This is done partly to get a common basis for systematic comparison. In order to contrast individuals or groups one needs a common yardstick. Still, certain variables may not fit all equally well. The meaning of a given question may differ from one person to another. Thus, although one technically has standardized measurements, the validity of the instrument may be questioned.

It is especially important to take into account such limitations in cross

national analyses. To compare countries with very contrasting cultures and different sodal institutions poses particular problems. Social definitions of certain conditions, such as "Being ill" could differ from one society to another. Thus, the same proportion of people registered as ill may hide differences in actual health. Or the ideal model for a dwelling place could be a "Detached one-family house" in one culture, while a "Flat in a block"

in another, making interpretations about housing standards complicated.

Furthermore, basic organization of the economy as weU as confidence in econornic institutions may vary. Hence, concepts like "Savings" and even

"Wages" may take on different meanings.

These problems are relevant for the present study. A substantial part of the questionnaire us ed in the Lithuanian survey is an adaptation of a Norwegian study carried out a few years earlier. This could be seen as an experiment on its own: Using a questionnaire for a Western country as an instrument for gathering data in an (up to 1 99 1 ) East European "Socialist"

society. Such a strategy provides comparative data, but one runs the risk of not all variables being as well-directed as desired. However, if one wants to gain insight on which questions are valid across national boundaries, one has to ask them and try them out, in order to see which are appropriate. Hence, the present report must also be considered as a

'.

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necessary first step in identifying appropriate variables for cross-national research in the fu ture.

FinaUy, it must be stressed that the aim of this first report is to analyze main tendencies and variations in living conditions in Lithuania. This implies that some variables are focused on while others are left for detail ed studies in the future. More thorough analyses of certain level of living components, such as health, housing and economic resources, will be carried out in additional reports later on. This is a task also for Lithuanian social scientists, who in the fu ture will have the Living conditions survey 1 990 at their disposal.

Outline of this Report

We have structured this report to rrurror the latest Social Report for Norway (CBS, 1 989). Hence, except for this first as weU as the two last chapters (on social reporting and the main data source), the other eight chapters (2-9) follow the Norwegian pattem. The following chapters are:

Chapter 2: Population Chapter 3 : Health Chapter 4: Education

Chapter 5: Employment and Conditions at Work Chapter 6: Income and Economic Resources Chapter 7: Housing

Chapter 8: Sodal Relation and Leisure Time Activities Chapter 9: Security SociaJ Confl ict and Public Opinion Chapter 1 0: Ba ic Quest'ion in Level of Living Studies and Social Reporting

Chapter 1 1 : The Main Data Source: Living Conditions Survey 1 990 In most c ases, where not specified otherwise, the Norwegian data come from the 1 987 survey . The empirical analyses for Lithuania are to a large extent based on the Living conditions survey 1 990. When figures from official Lithuanian statistics are presented, they are generally taken from one of these three sources:

Social development 89 (Socialine raida '89) Statistical yearbook 89 (Statistikos metrastis '89)

The population of Lithuania (Lietuvos gyventojai)

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Literature

CBS - Central B ureau of Statistics (SSE) 1 939

Annuaire Statistique de la Norwege 1 938. Oslo: Central B ureau of Statistics.

CBS - Central B ureau of Statistics (SSB) 1 989

Social Survey 1989 (Norway), Oslo: Central B ureau of Statistics.

Centralinis Statistikos B iuras - Kaunas 1 939

Annuaire Statistique de la Lithuanie. (Lietuvos Statistikos Metrastis 1 938 m.) Kaunas : Centralinis Statistikos Biuras.

Dogan, Mattei and Dominique Pelassy 1 984

How to compare nations. New Jersey: Chatman House Publishers, Inc.

Kohn, Melvin L. (Ed.) 1 989

Cross-national research in sociology. London: Sage/ASA.

Misiunas, Romuald J, and Rein Taagepera 1 983

The Baltic states: Years of dependenee 1 940-1980. London: Hurst.

Ramsøy, Natalie Rogoff 1 974

Norwegian society. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget/Scandia Books.

Rauch, Georg von 1 974

The Baltie states : Years of independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania 191 7-1940. London: Hurst.

Zinkus, Jonas 1 986

Lithuania. An encyclopedic survey. Vilnius: Encyclopedia Publishers.

øyen, Else (Ed.) 1 990

Comparative methodology. London: Sage/ISA.

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Chapter 2 Population

Data on the size and the structure of the population, such as sex and age distribution, as weU as fertility, growth, family relations and housing are important background information in the description and analysis of the leve1 of living conditions. Most aspects of interest later on in this report vary across population groups. Information about the population is a central premise for political action. The factors that influence living conditions will vary in importance from segment to segment:

Certain considerations of significance for one group, such as the availability of medical care for old people, may be less important for others, such as young people.

Another example is the availability of kindergartens and playgrounds for children. This would be important for many parents, while less consequential for those without children.

The physical working environment is essential for groups working full time, though of lesser significance for part-time employed, or those outside the regular labor force, such as children, students and old people.

For such reasons the size and structure of the population is important information input for planners. Age distribution tells how many persons could potentially participate in the work force at one given point in time, and may affect the dem and for educational resources and capaeity at various levels of the educational system. It also affects the type of health care and soeial services whitch will be required, and could bring about changes in the portion of the national product that has to be allocated to

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the care of old people. The distribution of family types is consequential for the kind of housing needed. The spread of the population over different regions will imply certain restrictions for loe al planners, and so forth.

Population and Population Growth

The Lithuanian population numbers a little over 3.7 million people. This is less than one thousandth of the total population of the world. In general the Lithuanian population seems to be following the same growth trend as the smaller countries in Western Europe, though with some time lag.

From 1 985 to 1 990 the yearly population growth in Lithuania on the average was around .5 percent. This is somewhat higher than for Norway ( .3 percent), though substantially lower than the world average of around 1 .7 . Growth in Lithuania is about the same as in industrial countries as a whole ( .6 percent) however, while clearly higher than in eountries sueh as Denmark and Sweden. This relatively high growth is due to a continuing birth surplus. Some countries, particularly in Western Europe, even witnessed a deerease in their population during the eighties. This applies to Denmark, Great Britain and former West Germany for instance.

Figure 2. 1 Population growth, total numbers

Thousands

30 .---�

• ^Urban

• Rural 20

1 0

o

1 986 1 987 1 988 1 989

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The surplus of births over deaths has been around 20,000 in later years.

From 1 986 to 1 989 the yearly population growth dec1ined steadily, though, from around 24,000 to 1 7,500. This trend is illustrated in Figure 2 . 1 and Figure 2.2. In the first figure growth is shown for the years 1 986-89 in urban areas, where two thirds of the population lives, and rural areas, aeeording to offieial Lithuanian statisties.

Growth in total numbers (Figure 2. 1 ) is mueh higher in urban areas (towns and eities), and the relative differenee holds even if we look at growth per 1 .000 of the population (Figure 2.2). As will be c1arified later on, the differenee between urban and non-urban areas for the main part is a eonsequenee of the faet that those living in eities on the average are

younger than those living in the eountryside. The death rate is higher in rural areas, so the differenee in population growth thus is not neeessarily the result of a differenee in age speeific fertility rates.

The pattem in Figures 2. 1 and 2.2 indieates a systematie dec lin ing trend both in total numbers and in relative terms. Although the population growth is positive and eontinues to be higher than in many other eountries, it is still deereasing year by year.

The redueed growth seems related to the eombination of lower numbers of births and a slightly higher number of deaths, both trends partly being the res ult of a ehanging age distribution of the population. The total Figure 2.2 Population growth, per 1000

1 0 -,---i . Urban

• Rural 8

6

4

2

o

1 986 1 987 1 988 1 989

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fertility rate, defined as the average number of children each woman in a population may be expected to have, is still relatively high in Lithuania as compared to many Western countries. In the mid-eighties this rate was still around 2. 1 . That this may be considered relatively high is illustrated in Figure 2.3, where the fertility rate of Lithuania is compared to severai countries in Europe.

Italy and Denmark have low total fertility rates, i.e. 1 .5 or lower, while other countries such as Norway, Sweden, Franee and Great Britain are in the 1 .7- 1 .8 range. The Lithuanian rate of 2. 1 is clearly above this, although the differenee is in no way dramatie. Indeed the difference between Franee and Italy is as great as the difference between Lithuania and France.

The higher total fertility rate in Lithuania has one important conse

quenee as compared with the other countries. While this rate is still approximately high enough in Lithuania lO secure reproduction of a

population of the same size in the long run, i l i · toa low ^lOdo o in ^many other countries, such as Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Whal i cal led the replacement level is estimated in Norway to be around 2. 1 . That means that every woman on the average has to have 2. 1 children in order to reproduce her own generation fully. If the Norwegian fertility level stays on a lower level ( 1 .7- 1 .8) for a long period of time, the naturai growth

Figure 2. 3 Fertility. Lithuania compared

TOTAL FERTI LlTY RATE

2,5 -..,---, 2,0

1 ,5

1 ,0

0,5

0,0

Lithuania France Sweden Gr. Brit. Norway Denmark Italy

Source: Official statistics

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will become negative: The number of deaths will be higher than the number of births. It Lithuania experiences a similar dec1ine in fertility rates in the future, the same problem may arise. However, from the mid

eighties and onwards the total fertility rate in Lithuania seems to have been fairly stable.

There are some interesting differences between urban and rural areas in this picture, as illustrated in Figure 2.4.

In the figure the total fertility rate is shown for three periods ( 1 985-86, 1 986-87, 1 988), for urban and rural areas separately . First, we note the same differenee between town and country in Lithuania as in most industrialized countries: the jertility rate is obviously higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Women in cities have fewer children than those in rural areas. Or putting in differently: modem women choose to have one or two children, while more traditionally oriented women prefer three or four. The reasons for this is complex and varied, linked to social norms, life styles, religious and other values, contraceptive practices and availability, etc., that will not be dealt with in detail here.

The difference in fertility rates between urban and rural areas seems to have been increasing. Figure 2.4 exhibits an interesting pattem: while the rate has been going down in cities, there is a tendency for it to go up in Figure 2.4 Total jertility pattern

4,0 3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0

1 ,5 1 ,0

0,5 0,0

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE

• Urban

-1---1 . Rural

1 985-86 1 986-87 1 988

Source: Official Lilhuanian slalistics

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the countryside. Thus, women in urban areas are apparently following the trend of their Westem European sisters, unlike the more traditional pattem in rural areas. For the country as a whole the two tendencies cancel each other out, resulting in a fairly stable average fertility rate in recent years.

It is tempting to ponder possible explanations for the different trends in urban and rural areas. However, the time period studied is probably too short to make any final judgement. Anyway, as even more people probably mo ve from the countryside to the cities, it would not come as a surprise, on the basis of the information in Figure 2.4, if the total fertility rate were to decline in years to come.

The Composition of the Population

The normal pattem in most countries is that there is a slight imbalance in the sex distribution of infants. Every year slightly more boys than girls (one to two percent) are bom. However, since men later on have a higher death probability, the sex distribution gradually changes with increasing age. Men' s higher death rate is probably linked both to biological traits, as well as their traditional roles in society at work and at home. Differenc

es tend to be particularly pronounced for age groups that were young or middle aged during times of war.

In the Lithuanian population we also find more women than men.

According to official statistics they outnumber men by nearly two hundred thousand, i.e. in 1 990 1 .960.000 women as compared to 1 .765.000 men.

I Figure 2.5 the population pyramid is shown. The numbers underlying Figure 2.5 are taken from official Lithuanian statistics. However, some interpolations had to be made in estimating the size of the very youngest and the oldest groups in order to make the pattern comparable to others, such as the Norwegian one.

Figure 2.5 shows the distribution of men and women in various age categories. Why it is called a pyramid should be evident from its typical shape, with the top gradually narrowing for older age groups, as the risk of dying increases. The figure also illustrates some interesting facts. First, the number of infants has been fairly constant over a period of over 20 years, as can be seen from the figures for age groups 0-4, 5-9, 1 0- 14, 1 5-

1 9 and 20-24. It can also be seen from the figure that the numbers of boys and girls bom are nearly equal, though with a slightly higher number of

FAFO - SOTECO

Gudmund Hernes and Knud Knudsen

LITHUANIA LIVING CONDITION8

A Sociological Study

A Sociological

FAFO - SOTECO

Z

Z

LITHUANIA

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1

Neighbors in Northern Europe

Lithuania and Norway before and after 1940

Limitations of this Study

Outline of this Report

Literature

Chapter 2 Population

Population and Population Growth

The Composition of the Population