Governance and women's group participation in solid waste management in Nepal : a case of Lalitpur sub metropolitan city

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GOVERNANCE AND WOMEN’S GROUP PARTICIPATION IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL

A Case of Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City

Nikita Sharma

Master of Philosophy, Specializing in Geography

Trondheim, May 2017

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Abstract

Waste Management is one of the major challenges municipalities in developing countries are facing. Municipalities in developing countries lack financial resources, technology and skills required to handle the burgeoning problem of solid waste management. This raises the issue of finding solutions to the current problems and delivering quality services to the public while facing financial and technical challenges. This study acknowledges the solid waste management system in Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City, Nepal. The objectives of this thesis were: to describe and explain the current waste management system; to find out how governance affect the management of solid waste and recommend future solutions for a sustainable waste management system in the municipality. This is done by exploring the involvement of women’s group as a method of public participation in solid waste management.

The objectives for the study were addressed primarily through semi-structured interviews and discussions with various stakeholders along with participatory observations. The study analyzed the current solid waste management system and identified the strengths and the weaknesses of the system in the municipality.

The study identified that the current solid waste management system practiced in Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan is highly inefficient. Waste segregation is inadequate. The collection and transportation of waste is challenged by inadequacy of resources. Recycling and composting is done in comparatively small scale. Majority of the waste is dumped in landfill site which faces a number of challenges due to weak governance practices. In order to deal with the current situation, the municipality has promoted capacity building and participation of women’s group. This seems to be producing positive outcomes, though at small scale. Taking into consideration all the current issues the study makes some recommendations for developing a sustainable solid waste management system for the future. Some of these recommendations are public private partnership for improved solid waste management in the municipality, involving people for consultation with respect to solid waste management decision making process, adoption of integrated solid waste management system and most importantly improved governance and better performing public

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institutions. The study concludes that people especially women’s group are willing to participate and contribute towards the development of a sustainable solid waste management system.

Recommendations provided by the study can be helpful to develop a system of solid waste management that can act as a model for other municipalities in the country.

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Acknowledgement

This study on governance and women’s group participation in solid waste management in Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City(LSMC) is a part of my Master’s degree in Development Studies specializing in Geography at Norwegian University of Science and Technology(NTNU). My reason for choosing this topic and LSMC is guided by my interest to gain understanding of municipal solid waste management in Nepal through one of the largest municipalities in the country.

Many people have helped in diverse ways to complete the study. First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Camilla Bjerkli for guiding me in writing this thesis. Her genuine guidance, constructive comments and critical revision of the drafts made it possible for me to complete the thesis successfully. I would also like to thank all staff of Department of Geography who provided support in numerous ways during the study period in Norway.

Next, I would like to thank State Education Loan Fund of Norway for providing me the financial support to pursue the Master’s Degree at NTNU. Finally, I thank all my research participants in Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City. Especially the staff of environment section and community development section, members of different women’s group, staffs of NGOs and volunteers in the municipality whose support and co-operation made the fieldwork successful. I would like to thank the members of women’s group who shared their experience and invited me to their home. Special thanks to the environmental engineer of Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City whose insights were helpful during the field work.

And lastly, deepest gratitude to my family and friends for their love, motivation and support that they gave me while I carried out my research.

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Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank APM All Party Mechanism

CBO Community Based Organization CDS Community Development Section CEO Chief Executive Officer

DDC District Development Committee

EU European Union

FGD Focus Group Discussion GON Government of Nepal

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH IWW Informal Waste Workers

KMC Kathmandu Metropolitan City

LB Local Bodies

LDO Local Development Officer LSGA Local Self Governance Act LSMC Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City

MCPM Minimum Conditions and Performance Measure MOFALD Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development MOUD Ministry of Urban Development

MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management

MT Metric Ton

NEPCEMAC Nepal Pollution Control and Environment Management Center NGO Non-Government Organization

NIMBY Not in my Backyard NPR Nepalese Rupee

NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology OBA Output Based Aid

SWM Solid Waste Management

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SWMRMC Solid Waste Management Resource Mobilization Center SWMTSC Solid Waste Management Technical Support Centre UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNEP United Nations Environment Program VDC Village Development Committee

WEPCO Women Environment Preservation Committee

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Linkage between governance and institutional qualities ... 31

Figure 2: Administrative boundary of LSMC ... 50

Figure 3: Average Composition of Household Solid Waste in LSMC ADB,2013 ... 57

Figure 4: Average Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in LSMC ... 57

Figure 5: Administrative Boundary of LSMC ... 66

Figure 6: Functional Elements of Solid Waste Management in the study area ... 68

Figure 7: Organizational Structure of LSMC for SWM with related sections and sub-sections ... 70

Figure 8: Distribution of Waste Segregation Bins to women's group ... 76

Figure 9: Transfer Station of an NGO. ... 81

Figure 10:Municipal Transfer Station... 86

Figure 11: Okharpauwa Landfill Site. ... 87

Figure 12: Classification of stakeholders into different group in SWM. ... 93

Figure 13: Essential elements in multi-stakeholder governance. ... 95

Figure 14: Recycle and Reuse training to women’s group. ... 99

Figure 15: Application of CLEAR framework to Women’s Group Participation in Solid Waste Management at Household level. ... 102

Figure 16: Relationship between Governance Principles and Institutional Qualities in the context of Waste Management in the municipality. ... 109

Figure 17: Main factors contributing to improper solid waste management in LSMC. ... 114

List of tables

Table 1: Respondents by Affiliation and Gender ... 43

Table 2: Focus Group Discussion... 44

Table 3: Population of different wards in LSMC ... 52

Table 4:Land Use Zone of LSMC ... 53

Table 5: Total waste generation and collection in LSMC. ... 73

Table 6:Willingness to pay by tariff slab and number of HH. ... 74

Table 7:Tariff collection and recycling revenues of largest service providers in LSMC. ... 75

Table 8:Types of equipment used by municipality for solid waste management. ... 78

Table 9: Actors involved in Solid Waste Management in the Municipality. ... 82

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1. Introduction

This chapter serves as the general introduction, highlighting the issues of Solid Waste Management in developing countries. Research objectives and research questions also form a part of this chapter.

1.1Background Overview

One of the current challenges in many urban areas of the world, both in mega cities and in smaller villages, is considered to be municipal solid waste management (Habitat,2014). Due to natural population growth, increasing urbanization, industrialization and limited resources the issue of waste management has become more challenging to cities in developing countries.

Today 54 percent of the world population live in urban areas, which is expected to be 66 percent by 2050(Nations,2014). Urban population around the globe is projected to grow by 2.5 billion urban dwellers between 2014 and 2050, with nearly 90 per cent of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa (Nations,2014). However, urbanization itself is not necessarily a problem but unplanned and haphazard urbanization coupled with increased industrial and economic activities giving a rise to the living standard of people, in turn generating a larger amount of waste is an issue. This trend of rising population generates larger amount of waste creating a risk for both public health and environment(WHO,1998). The problem of solid waste is more visible in the urban areas due to the concentration of industries, changed consumption habits of the residents and inadequate finance and facilities to sustainable waste management(Dongballe,2016). The volume of solid waste generated in urban areas have gone beyond the capacity of the available facilities in most developing countries.

Solid waste generation and its impact is an emerging public health issue in developing countries (Rakib, Rahman, Ali, Akther, Huda and Bhuiyan,2014). In a developing country, the problems associated with solid waste management is more severe than in a developed country (Guerrero, Maas and Hogland,2013). According to a United Nations Development Program survey of 151 mayors of cities from around the world, the second most serious problem that city dwellers face (after unemployment) is insufficient solid waste disposal (Singh and Chari,2010). As United

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Nations Environment Program in its report on solid waste situation in African sub-continent states in most developing countries solid waste sector is largely characterized by low coverage of solid waste management services, pollution from uncontrolled dumping of waste, inefficient public services, chaotic or unregulated private sector participation, and lack of key solid waste management infrastructure (UNEP, 2000) as cited in (Zurbrügg,2002).

The problem of municipal solid waste management is more acute in developing countries than in developed countries due to issues like unplanned settlement, lack of awareness, insufficient resources and lag of technological know-how (Marshall and Farahbakhsh,2013). Most cities cope with unprecedented challenges of managing solid waste along with the problem of collection and proper disposal (Sankoh and Yan, 2013).

It is also important to note the presence of higher amount of organic biodegradable component in municipal solid waste in developing countries. This high presence of organic component has an adverse impact on public health as well as on the environment (Alam and Ahmade, 2013). The organic matter present in the waste act as an attraction for the rodents and insects that transmit diseases and degrades the environment quality by producing foul odor and obstructing the beauty of the site (Alam and Ahmade, 2013). These impacts are not confined merely to the disposal site of the waste, they also infuse through the surrounding area including places where the waste was generated or accumulated(Zurbrugg,2003). Proper management of organic waste is necessary since its adverse impacts spread until they are fully decomposed (Zurbrugg, 2002).

Poor inaccessible and marginal urban areas in developing countries are the ones that suffer the most; situation in these low- income areas are worse than other parts they lack in services and infrastructure (Singh and Chari,2010). Waste collection system is often non-existent in these areas, especially because the settlements are unplanned and unauthorized and municipal services cannot reach in these settlements as they lack in basic infrastructure like well-paved roads.

In general, there are few constraints typical to developing countries that affects the sustainable solid waste management system. They are mostly concerned with the education awareness, resource availability and governance practices. Lack of education and awareness among the public

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about sustainable waste management practices is one major limitation prevailing throughout developing countries around the world. One issue that researchers think should be taken care of in terms of effective waste management in developing countries is to improve public awareness and community participation in waste management. It is necessary to establish a sustainable waste management system and to promote environmental citizenship amongst community members (Yoada, Chirawurah and Adongo, 2014). Usually people are more likely to participate in sustainable waste management practices if they are aware about the potential consequences of improper waste disposal and when they are taught about the sustainable ways of waste management for example; recycling(Guererro,Maas and Hogland).Whereas in developing countries formal recycling programs are rare, so it is common for the informal sector carry to out the recycling work (O’Connell, 2011).

In addition to the issue of increased solid waste generation, developing countries have to cope with problems such as lack of accessible road network through many sections of the city (Parrot, Sotamenou and Dia,2009). With the increasing population increases, the congestion in urban areas as a result waste collection vehicles cannot reach inner city areas, allowing the waste or garbage to build up overtime, eventually leading to adverse effects on public health (Ngoc and Schnitzer,2009).

On the other hand, authorities in developing countries have to face challenges such as increased cost for waste management, the cost of basic waste management in developing countries is high, usually 20-50 percent of recurring budget of municipalities (Shekdar,2009). Although only half of the urban population is catered by the waste management services(Bravo,2008). As Zerbock points out, lack of financial resources and infrastructure to deal with solid waste creates a vicious cycle;

lack of resources leads to low quality of service provision which leads to fewer people willing to pay for the services, which in turn further erodes the resource base and so on (Zerbock, 2003).

With the increasing population, changing consumption pattern, economic growth, municipalities in developing countries are struggling to retain a sustainable solid waste management system (Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009). Mostly solid waste generated in the urban areas of developing countries goes uncollected (Khajuria, Yamamoto and Morioka, 2010). The uncollected waste is

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often dumped on the roads and streets as well as in drains, rivers that sometimes can contribute to problems like flooding due to blockage of drainage system. Whereas, it also contributes to breeding of insects and spreading of innumerable diseases that in turn affects the public health.

Even the collected waste due to lack of proper waste management system is often disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites or burned, polluting water resources and the air (Ejaz, Akhtar and Hashmi, 2010).

Every step in SWM system starting from the household waste generation, storage, waste segregation at source, adoption of recycling activities, minimization of littering, willingness to pay for the waste management services, and opposition to the siting of treatment and disposal facilities are highly dependent on public awareness and participation (Shahmoradi,2013). Therefore, in developing countries, public awareness and approach towards waste has significant impact on the success and failure of entire solid waste management system.

1.2 Research objectives and questions

The focus of the study is on municipal solid waste management at the household level. This study examines the role of governance in municipal solid waste management focusing on household level and women’s group participation in waste management Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan as a case reflecting the situation in developing countries where a shift to alternative development concepts is seen. Municipal Solid waste management in Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan is examined with respect to good governance indicators like public participation, co-operation, transparency and accountability, efficiency and equity. The relationship between public and private sector along with international and national aspects of governance are discussed, with the focus on participation of women’s group as an alternative development approach. The reason to choose the following research questions is a growing focus in the waste management literature on governance as a key to improve the services, additionally involvement of community based organizations in Nepal has also been regarded as a method to make solid waste management services efficient.

1.2.1Research objective

The objectives of the thesis are as follows:

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• To describe the current waste management situation in the municipality including the practices and main challenges.

• To examine the role of good governance in the management of solid waste in the metropolitan city

• To understand how involvement of women’s group as a method of public participation has produced intended results in solid waste management.

• To recommend future solutions and possibilities for a more sustainable waste management in the municipality.

1.2.2Research Questions

1. What are the current solid waste management practices in the municipality?

2. What is the relationship between good governance and waste management in an urban area like municipality?

3. What are the main challenges faced by the municipality when it comes to managing solid waste?

4. Which role do women groups play in the management of solid waste at household level?

5. What should be done to improve the management of solid waste in the municipality?

1.2.3 Rationale of the study

The problem under investigation in this study is the worsening solid waste management situation in Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City and the relationship between governance system and the functioning of the municipality. In addition, examining the role women’s group play for the management of solid waste at household level. The municipality is predominantly urban settlement where solid waste generation is comparatively higher than other municipalities with the increased production and consumption habits. In contrast to the situation of increasing solid waste generation, municipality is unable to provide adequate solid waste collection, transportation and safe disposal facilities to the public. As a result of this solid waste situation in the municipality is deteriorating day by day. The role of governance is important to understand in this context as the country is facing political instability and public institutions are the ones directly affected by this, municipalities being one of those institutions. Similarly, the role of women’s group becomes important for solid waste management as, the municipality is the only urban settlement with proper

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functioning community based organizations in form of women’s group contributing to solid waste management. Therefore, this study was undertaken to gain a better understanding of the current practices and challenges faced by the municipality and formulate recommendations for better solid waste management system.

1.2.4 Scope of the study

The focus of this study is Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City (LSMC), one of the largest municipality in Nepal undergoing rapid urbanization along with the problem of proper solid waste management.

The worsening waste management situation in municipalities of Nepal has attracted attention of national government as well as various international donor organizations. A number of studies have been carried out to understand the waste management situation in Kathmandu Valley which comprises Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City(LSMC). However, none of these studies have examined the issue of solid waste management in detail to generate an adequate understanding and solutions to existing problems. Particularly no research has been done in relation to governance and solid waste management with a focus on women’s group participation. Thus, solid waste management situation in LSMC is still under researched. In addition, the unavailability of authentic and reliable data has deepened the already existing knowledge gap. In this current scenario, the study has tried further understanding of the solid waste management situation in LSMC, with a focus on governance and considering the contribution of women’s group. It has tried to make contributions to the theory and practice of solid waste management system in the municipality and Nepal in general.

1.2.5 Organization of the thesis

The thesis is organized into 7 chapters. In chapter 1 introduction to the context of the research, background of the study, research questions, research objectives, statement of research problem and scope of the research are presented. Chapter 2 provides the literature review of the solid waste situation in developing countries, examining the factors hindering effective solid waste management in these countries. It also talks about the approaches that developing countries are

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embracing for better waste management practices. Chapter 3 consists of the conceptual and theoretical framework used in the research, addresses the concept of governance, essentials of good governance, relationship between good governance and institutional qualities for better waste management services in developing countries. Chapter 4, covers the methodological approach employed and the methods used to collect data for the research. It is followed by a discussion of qualitative approach as a dominant paradigm in social science research. Various field experiences are discussed, along with the methods used for the study. Finally, issues relating to positionality, ethical issues and self-reflection as a researcher are discussed. Chapter 5, provides the background information of the study area, its geographical features, population, climate history of solid waste management in Nepal and legal provisions for waste management in Nepal. In Chapter 6, analysis of the data gathered for the study is done. It covers the analysis of waste generation, segregation, collection, transportation and disposal in LSMC. The analysis is done from the perspective of different stakeholders including the municipality, the private actors and the women’s group. It also discusses the various issues raised by the different service providers and women’s group in relation to the theory and various models are applied to analyze the information. The results presented later in the chapter is an attempt to answer the questions raised in Chapter 1. Chapter 7, comprises my own conclusion drawn from the study and recommendations for better solid waste management in the study area and Nepal in general.

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2. Solid Waste Management in developing countries

Solid waste management condition in developing world is dismal. Today, Solid Waste Management System in developing countries are same as the conditions found in the past in developed world (McAllister, 2015). Traditionally, the municipalities have been in charge of providing SWM services in developing countries (Ogawa,2008). It is the responsibility of municipalities to organize and manage the waste from household; this includes providing the structure for the collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste in a proper manner However, municipal governments of developing nations lack the ability to provide the basic waste management services (Guerrero, Maas andHogland,2013).

2.2Solid Waste Management Problem in Developing Countries

Waste management has been a problem for the government in developing countries. Mostly due to the combination of social, economic and political reasons. In Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) of developing countries most common problem can be identified as inadequate coverage area of waste collection, operational inefficiencies of public services limited recycling activities, inadequate landfill disposal, and inadequate management of hazardous and hospital waste (Zurbrugg, 2003).

Poor solid waste management services in developing countries led to the implementation of neoliberal policies through structural adjustment programs (Manga, Forton and Read,2008). Later alternative development theories also promoted the participation of private actors for the provision of better services (Lewis and Kanji,2009). Despite the private sector involvement in solid waste management, there are still problems with solid waste management services in developing countries (Oduro-Kwarteng and VanDijk,2013). The problems in cities have become burdensome despite efforts being made by city authorities and governments (Oduro-Kwarteng, 2011). The problems of solid waste such as inadequate service coverage, irregular waste collection, waste spill over from bins and storage containers, and lax attitude of people towards indiscriminate disposal on unauthorized places and waste littering are common in developing countries (Oduro-Kwarteng, 2011).

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Though in developing countries the amount of solid waste generated in most urbanized areas are low as compared to waste generated in industrialized countries, the municipal solid waste management system is inadequate. Primarily, inadequacy in solid waste management eventually leads to environmental pollution, impact on public health and disrupts the aesthetics of the city.

As the public sector becomes unable to collect the waste, uncollected waste is often dumped into rivers or drains and sometimes burnt and buried. People do these activities without taking into account the environmental consequences and health risks it poses to them. These problems have an immediate effect on the health of poorer population while in the long run it affects the entire urban population. The impact of uncollected waste within cities in developing countries is enormous. Cities are faced with urban environmental health issues related to solid waste management (UN-HABITAT, 1996).

The amount of waste generated by a household largely depends on the family size and monthly income (Guerrero, Maas and Hogland,2013). At the same time consciousness among household about waste segregation and waste management depend on their level of knowledge and exposure.

It is common for developing countries that collection, transfer and transport practices are affected by improper bin location, poor collection practices, route planning and lack of information about collection schedule, inadequate infrastructure, poor road network and insufficient number of vehicles for waste collection (Mogadham, Mokhtarani and Mokhtarani,2009).

In industrialized countries, solid waste generated from different sectors are treated in separate ways whereas in developing countries the separate treatment of waste is non-existent (Jin,Wang and Ran,2006). But there is a presence of informal sector in developing countries that contribute largely to waste minimization (Wilson, Velis and Cheeseman,2006). Organizing the informal sector and promoting micro-enterprises are also effective ways of extending affordable waste collection services (Sharholy, Ahmad, Mahmood and Trivedi,2008). On the other hand, lack of knowledge about treatment system among waste management authorities is stated as one factor affecting the proper treatment of waste (Chung and Lo, 2008). Whereas, for the disposal of household waste, reasons like inadequate supply of waste containers, longer distance to communal

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containers increase the chances of waste being dumped in open areas and roadsides (Tadesse, Ruijs and Hagos,2008). Major constraints encountered by municipalities of developing countries are as follows:

2.2.1Inadequate human resources

Ogawa (2008) notes that developing countries lack in technical expertise required for solid waste management especially planning and operation, both at national and local level. He also argues that many solid waste management programs initiated by external donor agencies failed to sustain due to lack of technical expertise and unavailability of funds(Ogawa,2008). According to Onibokun (1999), most municipalities are unable to attract qualified personnel required for the various aspects of waste management such as planning, operation, monitoring and evaluation. In many cases, authorities have inadequate human resources at all levels, involving the laborers in waste management sector. This was pointed out by Kironde (1999) that human resources for waste management in Dares Salaam were inadequate in terms of both managerial and technical staff and waste collectors. He argued that the main reason behind this was poor technical training along with the low wage rate and dehumanized working conditions (Kironde,1999).

Along with it, shortage of people working in waste management sector in development countries can be related to social stigma associated with the waste (Onibokun, 1999). This situation leads to disrespect for waste and sanitation work and in turn induces low morale among waste laborers (Ogawa, 2002). This makes the poorly educated and the poorest population to take up the job in waste management. It makes the implementation of waste management programs difficult for the authorities unless they are able to train and motivate these human resources properly according to the requirement.

2.2.2Institutional Constraints

Inefficient institutions are responsible for poor urban management and public service delivery in developing countries (Zurbrugg,2002). It is characteristic of developing countries to involve several agencies in solid waste management system; often without clear distinction of roles and responsibilities of the various agencies(Ogawa,2008). While in some states the issue of not having an agency to manage and guide the activities of other waste management agencies also exist (Attahi, 1999). While existence of number agencies without well-defined roles can result in

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duplication of one function (Ogawa, 2008). The lack of collaboration and co-operation between the agencies involved can lead to the failure of waste management program. Whereas, inefficiency in managerial skills of institutions can also be one of the reasons as noted by (Zurbrugg, 2002).

Municipal administrations responsible for SWM services are usually weak in their functioning and bureaucracy is filled with hurdles.

Thus, to improve the management of solid waste in developing countries, an effective and efficient management is required. In addition, co-operation and co-ordination between different levels of government and different agencies involved in the urban waste management system is needed for sustainability in waste management.

2.2.3Absence good governance and civil society

The last two decades, governance has been a major aspect of development discourse. Especially in poor developing countries where lack of good governance practices has been blamed for the inefficient delivery of public services in this case waste management services. Whereas lack of a strong and well-organized civil society to raise social issues and exert pressure on governments have always been felt in developing countries (Hashmi, 2007). The prevalence of “bad governance” for a long time has made governments in developing countries numb towards the wellbeing of the citizens and have failed to deliver services like provision of basic infrastructure, management of waste in order to maintain public health (Hashmi, 2007). The poor are the ones always hit hard by bad governance as they are in many cases, denied participation in decision making, especially about the issues that affect them. Thus, lack of participation of the poor in decision making process related to services such as water, sanitation and waste will lead to situation where there needs are unlikely to be met in future as well (Devas and Korboe, 2000).

According to Hashmi (2007), a strong civil society is necessary for the promotion of a vigorous liberal democratic order in the Third World, where governments are generally unaccountable and unresponsive to the problems of society (Hashmi,2007). This view is supported by Cohen and Arato (1992) who also regard civil society as an important actor for the promotion of democracy and rights. According to the UNDP (2005), civil society action is critical for establishing strong safeguard policies and no government can achieve sustainable development without the active involvement of a fully-fledged civil society as cited in (Feinberg, Waisman and Zamosc,2006). In

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spite of the important role that civil society can play in promoting good governance and the general interest of society, civil society pressure or action is generally weak in developing countries and even non-existent in many areas as they fail to organize themselves and take action. While in some cases even when they complain about the poor services, it often goes unheard and unnoticed due to the inability of the poor to organize themselves as group (Smith,2007).

2.2.4Budgetary/Financial Constraints

Financial constraints are normally felt in developing countries, as resources are limited and available resources are usually unevenly distributed. Municipalities struggle to achieve their urban environment management goals due to financial constraint (Serageldin, Solloso and Valenzuela,2006). There are limited opportunities for the development of sustainable SWMS, as government budgets are limited and proper waste collection is overlooked (Al-Khatib, Monou, Zahra, Shaheen and Kassinos, 2010). A study in Kenya found that municipal budget was used to pay over-staffed and underqualified workforce (Henry, Yongsheng and Jun 2006). Whereas issues such as inadequate vehicles, waste collection equipment and waste collection laborers are common, mainly due to misappropriation of the budget.

Lohse (2003) has described the problem of finance in municipalities of developing countries as

“the gap between financial resources and municipal expenditure needs” (Lohse,2003, p.4).

According to him, this fiscal gap is widening as urban populations expand, increasing the demand for infrastructure and services including waste disposal. He further goes to explain that one reason for the municipal finance gap is that “most municipalities lack the autonomy to establish their tax basis, rate structures, and enforcement procedures, and so cannot raise revenues commensurate with their expenditure requirements” (Lohse, 2003, p .4). Whereas the low fees charged by the municipality for waste collection services and insufficient funds from central municipal budgets cannot finance adequate levels of service (Zurbruegg, 2002). While some authors have pointed out that, the finance problem in governments is due to the lack of good financial management and planning (Tagoe and Anuwa-Amarh, 2005). Low priority given to solid waste management is another reason for inadequate finances in developing countries which results in inability to provide the level of service required to protect the environment and public health (Ogawa, 2008).

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Whereas, some municipalities as a solution to the financial problem, has raised revenue from other municipal infrastructure. Still issues like corruption, lack of transparency and accountability constrain in revenue raising activities in developing countries (Kolstad and Wiig,2009). On the other hand, lack of industrial growth in developing countries makes them highly reliant on donors to buy expensive equipment required for waste management (Driscoll,1995).

2.2.5Lack of advanced technology

In most developing countries, technologies adapted in municipal solid waste management are either inadequate or inefficient to the changing times (Guerrero, Hogland and Maas, 2013).

Developing countries are not able to use the conventional waste collection vehicles as used in developed countries due to its high maintenance cost and lack of engineering capacity. At the same time, there is a presence of urban poor, in developing countries which makes the cheap. This cheap labor can be utilized by providing jobs in waste management sector so that the focus is on labor intensive methods. Nonetheless, inadequacy of technology and equipment contributes to the lag in service coverage and inefficiency in waste management. While in developing countries, some waste sources large part of the households in the city might be very difficult to access due to congested and poor roads (Bleck and Wettberg,2012). This is especially problematic in unplanned settlements such as slums or low-income areas and thus, the vehicles should be selected cautiously.

A study done in India found that poor conditions of containers and inadequate maintenance and replacement of worn-out collection vehicles contributed to behaviors such as littering and illegal dumping by citizens who felt they could not properly dispose of trash because trash bins and waste services were not properly maintained (Hazra and Goel, 2009). On the other hand, techniques effective in developed countries might not always be useful and efficient in developing countries, as they do not have adequate infrastructure and know how to handle these technologies. Currently, the need of developing countries is to design and adapt appropriate waste management equipment suitable for the local condition (Marshall and Farahbakhsh, 2013).

2.2.6 Inadequate enforcement of laws and regulations

In developing countries, the lack of laws and regulations is not a problem, rather lack of enforcement is an issue for sustainable waste management. In the report prepared for African Development Bank (ADB) on study of solid waste management options for Africa, Palczynski

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noted that “no country [in the study] has a specific waste management legislation even though legislation is being drafted now in some countries” (Palczynski, p.iv). While in some countries although there are, sufficient legislations covering waste management, local authorities lack the capacity to implement them (Henry et al., 2006). It has been observed that in many developing countries laws related to waste management are not concrete but are part of legislations related to environment management. Onibokun (1999) has also noted the inability or unwillingness of municipal officials to enforce existing laws on environmental sanitation including the scanty legislation on waste disposal. Whereas, public in developing countries are reluctant to comply to waste management laws and rules due to lack of knowledge and awareness, which leads to activities such as littering and dumping of waste in rivers, drains and at roadside. Activities like this makes the process of waste management more difficult. Thus, inadequacy of appropriate legislation in some cases and lack of enforcement of existing laws in other makes solid waste management system in developing countries a difficult job.

2.2Current Approach to Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries

Inadequacy in the waste management services has created a need to establish a sustainable waste management system that focuses on social, environmental, economic, financial and institutional aspects of developing countries (Guerrero, Maas and Hogland, 2013). There is an emerging global consensus to develop local level solutions and to involve community participation for better waste management (Rathi, 2007). In the current scenario when municipalities are, struggling to handle the increasing amount of waste generated in the urban areas emphasis on new initiatives in SWM can contribute to urban sustainable development mainly through the focus in governance and partnerships between various sectors.

With the increasing negative impact of uncollected waste on surrounding areas including the adverse impacts on public health indicate the need for public involvement in ensuring provision along with the possibility of contracting out the service to the responsible communities. While keeping in mind needs of the poor urban areas, lacking infrastructure and producing comparatively lower volume of waste is also important; as they might require the service directly from the municipality. Solid Waste Management in developing countries is a complex task due to the existence of population with diverse socio-economic status, which makes cooperation among

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communities, private sector and government as a way of sustainable waste management.

Especially involvement of women in household solid waste management programs can be considered important as they are the ones generally doing the household chores and are involved in cleaning the household.

As a result, focus has shifted on alternative development approaches in solid waste management programs that take into account country-specific problems; development and implementation of regulations and standards. Along with it, a system of enforcement of regulations have started to dominate the solid waste management system in developing countries. Local government or municipal governments have largely been responsible for solid waste management, complying with national regulations (Marshall and Farahbakhsh, 2013). The interplay of various institutional, financial and human factors requires the municipal government to involve public agencies and private organizations. These alternative approaches are people centered and participatory. It emphasizes that people are agents of social change and grass-root organizations and informal sectors can be an integral part of development process.

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3 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

3.1Relevancy of the concept

The concept of governance, its principles and its indicators of institutional qualities gives an insight about how the governance system should be for the different sectors of the state to function effectively. In addition, the importance of involvement of grass-root level organizations/community based organizations as a method to achieve better governance is addressed by the concept. In reality, achieving good governance with all its elements in place may not be applicable to every country. However, in municipal solid waste management, the importance of these principles of governance such as transparency, accountability, participation etc, in relation with institutional qualities cannot be undermined as being one of the major factors contributing to the ineffective waste management system. Governance is used as a framework to understand the how the current waste management system is operating and what should be improved in the municipality to make the SWM more efficient. Furthermore, a descriptive understanding of institutional qualities has been useful in defining the role of actors involved in waste management system. In addition, it provides a better understanding of organizational operations and linkages concerning waste management in the municipality. Consequently, governance as a concept and theoretical framework has helped me to understand the struggle of municipality to provide services to the public due to financial, institutional, political reasons also the relationship between municipality and other actors such as the government ministries non- government organizations and Community Based Organizations operating within the waste management system.

3.2 Concept of Governance

The term “governance” came into prominence after World Bank in its study in 1989 “Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth” identified the crisis of governance as an issue for economic development in Africa. Post-colonial African states especially the Sub-Saharan region has failed to achieve social, economic and political advancement for the ordinary people. However, while for those who run the state have continued to enjoy unrestrained access to state resources through a well-oiled patron client system, which has been stated as crisis of governance in state of

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Africa (Animashaun, 2009). Since then, the term governance has become one of the most popular term in development discourse. Though its use became widespread, the way governance was perceived varied with nations. It generally refers to the task of running a government or any appropriate entity, such as an organization (Hyden, 1992).

Governance as defined by World Bank is the manner in which power is exercised in the management of country’s economic and social resources for development (World Bank,1992, p.1).

UNDP defines “governance” as the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a nation's affairs. It is the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences (UNDP, 1997).

This definition of governance makes a clear distinction that governance is broader than government as governance encompasses the state but also surpasses the state as it includes the private sector and civil society organizations (Smith, 2007). Governance may be taken as a significance of how people are ruled and how the affairs of a state are administered and regulated.

It refers to a nation’s system of politics, and how this functions in relation to public administration and law (Mollah, 2003).

Governance as a concept has been adopted in the development discourse since the 1990s to improve the resource management and public services in many developing countries characterized as poor, inefficient, corrupt in their public service delivery system. International development community has been promoting good governance as a key part of aid policies and development agendas (World Bank 1992, 1994; Leftwich, 1993).

Leftwich argues that international donors' interest in governance is due to four factors. First, the experience of structural adjustment in the 1980s reflects the significance of political factors such as political commitment and state capacity in policy design and implementation. Second, neo- liberalism, dominant in the Western ideological profile since the 1980s. This has led to the assumption that democracy is necessary for a free market economy and that economic growth failed in most Third World countries because of such political factors as authoritarian rule and

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deficient democratic practices. Third, the collapse of communism in the late 1980s has enabled the west to impose the political conditionality of democratization on Third World countries. Without being afraid of losing allies or clients to communism, as it had been the case in the earlier bipolar world of the cold war. Finally, indigenous pro-democracy movements in many Third World countries legitimize the international donors' policies by supporting the political liberalization (Leftwich, 1993).

According to Rodriguez and Winchester in their study of urban governance in Latin America, referred governance as the pattern of formal and informal relationships between the agents that operate within and throughout a city and how these agents make urban development decisions (Rodriguez and Winchester, 1996). Their definition of governance includes the actors that function outside the realm of the state. This definition of governance aids the vital role that non-state actors play in governance as well as the informal relationships between the state and the actors.

In the 21^st century, the term governance has been applied to many different areas and issues.

Especially organizations like World Bank and European Union refer to the normative state of good governance when referring to governance (Davies, 2008). Governance is used interchangeably with good governance. The principles of good governance as put forward by World Bank are participation, transparent and accountability, rule of law, effectiveness and equity. Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of resources.

Good governance is epitomized by predictable, open and enlightened policymaking, a bureaucracy imbued with a professional ethos acting in furtherance of public good, the rule of law, transparent processes and a strong civil society participating in public affairs (World Bank, 1994).

While the critics of World Bank’s definition argue, that World Bank has interpreted good governance as good neo-liberalism (Wood, 2005). Hirst states ‘that good governance therefore means creating free markets, promoting investment and adopting the right macro-economic policies’ (Hirst, 2000, p.14) as cited in (Pierre, 2000).

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According to McCawley, the most important elements of good governance are; the processes by which governments are chosen, monitored and changed, the systems of interaction between the administration, the legislature, and the judiciary, the ability of government to create and to implement public policy and the mechanism by which citizens and groups define their interests and interact with institutions of authority and with each other (McCawley, 2005) as cited in (Roy, 2006).

Even though the concept of governance has been defined in different ways by different authors, the essence of the concept remains the same. In the broadest sense, governance concerns performance of the government, including public and private sectors, global and local arrangements, formal structures, informal norms and practices, and spontaneous and intentional system of control (Roy, 2006).

3.2.1 Good Governance and Bad Governance

Today governance is used as a standard way of referring to good and bad governance. International aid has identified bad governance as major obstacle to economic growth in poorer countries and as a result the presence of good governance in government policies has become a necessity for the developing countries receiving aid from the international donor agencies. It can also be seen in the priorities of the donors, which mainly includes promotion of democracy (elections, rule of law, accountability, human rights and economic liberalization).

A 1992 World Bank report identified the following key symptoms of bad governance as follows;

failure to make a clear separation between what is public and what is private. Along with, a tendency to direct public resources for private gain, failure to establish a predictable framework of law; arbitrariness in the application of rules and laws. Excessive rules, regulations, licensing requirements, and so forth which impede the functioning of markets and encourage rent-seeking, priorities inconsistent with development, resulting in a misallocation of resources, excessively narrowly based or non-transparent decision making (as cited in Khan, 2002).

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As Bøås has written, ‘the World Bank operationalized “bad governance” as personalization of power, lack of human rights, endemic corruption and un-elected and unaccountable governments’.

Therefore, ‘good governance must be the natural opposite’ (Bøås, 1998).

In order to improve governance, significant amount of resources are spent to promote good governance in developing countries. The Worldwide governance indicators as put forward by World Bank in 1996, has been a method to measure governance across countries. These new set of the World Bank public sector governance indicators are covering 212 countries from the period 1996–2008. Currently this has been recognized as an effective measurement tool across the world.

These governance indicators focus on the following 6 dimensions (Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi, 2009):

• Voice and Accountability: measuring perceptions of the extent to which a country’s citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and a free media.

• Political Stability and Absence of Violence: measuring perceptions of the likelihood that the government would be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means, including politically motivated violence and terrorism.

• Government Effectiveness: measuring perceptions of the quality of public services, the quality of the civil service and the degree of its independence from political pressures, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to such policies.

• Regulatory Quality: measuring perceptions of the ability of the government to formulate and implement sound policies and regulations that permit and promote private sector development.

• Rule of Law: measuring perceptions of the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society, and in particular, the quality of contract enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime and violence.

• Control of Corruption: measuring perceptions of the extent to which public power is exercised for private gain, including both petty and grand forms of corruption, as well as

‘capture’ of the state by elites and private interests.

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3.3 The main indicators of good governance

United Nations Development Program as a promoter of good governance in developing countries has given priority to indicators like participation, transparency, accountability, effectiveness and equity as the most important ones (Grindle, 2012). Major focus in this study will also be on the definition of good governance given by UNDP as they emphasize on sustainable development.

The indicators defined below are chosen for the study as these are the ones that are able to represent the current situation in Nepal.Where political instability is all time high in combination with lack of accountability towards citizens. The public sector is embroiled in corruption resulting to low efficiency in services.

3.3.1 Participation

Participation in general is deemed a positive thing for development. Participation became an essential component of mainstream development in the 1990s, it was regarded as a method to address the development ills, now has become a development orthodoxy. Participation can be defined as a process in which stakeholders are able to influence public policy decisions, have control over common resources and institutions including a check over the government power (Agere, 2000). In the context of governance, participation focus on empowerment of citizens, including women and addressing the interplay between the broad range of civil societies, actors and actions (Agere, 2000, p.9). It enables a situation where citizens can make positive demands from the government and even monitor their actions. It can occur at different levels such as grass root level through civic organizations, at national regional level through various forms of government and though the private sector.

Organizations such as UNDP stress how development requires a contribution from public participation through civil society organizations because governments cannot on their own fulfill all the tasks required for sustainable human development. This goal requires the active participation and partnership of citizens and their organizations (UNDP,1995, p.2) as cited in (Smith, 2007). While critics of participation argue that democratic processes such as public participation at times can lead to situations like political instability; as it will serve the interests of the more powerful group in the society; but the evidence from many developing countries

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including Nepal (e.g. community forestry) shows it has not been true; rather socio-political unrests occur more often in dictatorships, concluding that participation foster the overall development process (UNDP, 2000). Studies have shown that participation works better under some conditions than others, especially when it is based on already existing local communal institutions and systems of collective management perhaps associated with kinship, traditional leadership or other traditions of rural co-operation (Smith, 2007).

Participation in management of service through community organizations have been found to improve performance by strengthening the accountability of providers to clients. As Downs, has stated through the example of Nicaragua where local government acted as an “articulate interface”

between the organized local population and state agencies that generally have few resources. In Nicaragua, the relationship between local government and local people became a significant reason for the mobilization of the population for public health and literacy campaigns (Downs, 1987).

Participation has been on the donors list as concern for quality of governance but has failed to provide impressive results in several cases. Achievements by participation since the 1980 are less than hoped for. Especially, participation of the poorest seldom occurs, as the development agencies both governmental and non-governmental are not able to adopt participation as a philosophy, culture and working practice. This requires a change in the power structure that perpetuate poverty, which political elites are reluctant to do, unless they can use participation to manipulate the system and support their agenda (Smith, 2007).

3.3.2 Accountability

Participation relies on accountability of the governing body. The government, private sector and civil society organizations who serve as decision-makers are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. Accountability differs depending on the organizations and whether the decision is internal or external (Graham, Amos and Plumptre,2003). Greater accountability from the leaders and the capacity of the system to put forward the public demand can lead to more committed and effective application of policies and greater responses to crises. Accountability is one of the various processes of democracy, where citizen can demand for information from the government. It makes the public agencies and officials responsible for their decisions. The core

Governance and women's group participation in solid waste management in Nepal : a case of Lalitpur sub metropolitan city