EDUCATION:
Visitor Management Tool to reduce Direct Ecological Impact Resulting from Marine Tourism
Case Study: Con Dao, Vietnam
Master thesis in International Fisheries Management (30 credits)
By
Lena Pettersson
MAREMA
Centre of Marine Resource Management Norwegian College of Fishery Science
University of Tromsø
May 2009
“Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;
He who would search for pearls, must dive below”
(“All for love” by John Dryden)
ABSTRACT
Education is frequently used within visitor management, as a soft approach to fulfil different objectives e.g. increase awareness, alter behaviour. This thesis attempts to shed some light regarding how it can be used to reduce direct ecological impacts. For such to take place the tool needs to result in behavioural change(s) i.e.
reduce destructive actions. In many situations though, education is not as a sufficient motivator for such. This might imply that the
“win-win” situation, main reason for the tool’s stated efficiency, is seldom reached. Main emphasis of the thesis is to centralize this problem. The explorative approach has led to findings, which will hopefully aid future visitor management. These include; initial explanation of varying efficiency of the tool(s) e.g. destructive actions lead to benefits, how can educational tools alter the benefits; and ultimately zoning the need for educational tools. It also questions the routine manner of incorporating imprecise
objectives within management e.g. need for education, and change visitors’ behaviour, which will solely lead to resource loss. Many models link education with behavioural change. Few, if any can be directly used as a practical tool within visitor management. Since one cannot expect managers to grasp the jungle of existing
theoretical frameworks, this thesis initiates the process of developing such.
Second part of the thesis applies all prior findings to a case study location: Con Dao, Vietnam. Current use of educational tools is very limited, and since extensive tourism development is about to take place in this archipelago; improved visitor management is essential.
Fieldwork revealed situations where educational implementations would benefit management; and in-depth interviews provided insight to visitors’ opinions and experiences regarding in-formal education on Con Dao. Ultimately, recommendations for future use of
educational tools are presented.
Key Words: Marine tourism, Direct impact, visitor management, Education, Con Dao: Vietnam
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis has relied on a network of people and resources. Many have contributed with inputs; including marine educators,
researchers, managers, conservationists, dive operators, tourists.
Thanks;
My supervisors; Jorge Santos and Petter Holm, for continuous support, feedback, and the sense of humour; all very much
appreciated. The Norwegian College of Fishery Science, SEMUT (centre for environment and development) and Norges Fiskarlag (Nor-Fishing) for their financial support, which enabled me to conduct fieldwork.
WWF Greater Mekong Programme, and Keith Symington especially, for showing an interest in this project, as well as providing me with information and area insight. Con Dao National Park for the patience to answer questions, and presenting the wonders of Con Dao. Rainbow Divers (Con Dao) for underwater world insight in both Nha Trang and Con Dao. Many more have contributed with information and guidance during the fieldwork in Vietnam. Therefore, additional thanks to Research Institute for marine fisheries (in particular Mr. Le Doan Dung), Institute of Oceanography (in particular Mr. Nguyen Van Long), Hon Mun MPA office.
To My Family – neither would have taken place without You.
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Introduction ...8
1.1 Research Background ... 8
1.2 Case Study Context ... 8
1.3 Researcher Context ... 9
1.4 Problem Definition & Research Question ... 9
1.5 Research Significance ... 11
1.6 Research Limitation ... 12
2. Methodology ...13
Summary ... 13
2.1 Introduction ... 13
2.2 Research Design ... 14
2.3 Data Collection ... 15
2.3.1 Interview – Informal & Formal ... 15
2.3.1.1 Sampling Technique ... 16
2.3.1.2 Informants ... 16
2.3.2 Case Study Research ... 17
2.3.2.1 Geographical Scale ... 17
2.3.2.2 Temporal Scale ... 17
2.3.2.3 Observation ... 18
2.3.2.4 In-Depth Interview ... 18
2.4 Challenges ... 19
3. Theoretical Concepts ...21
3.1 Tourism Development ... 21
3.2 Limiting the Concept ... 21
3.3 Marine Perspective ... 22
3.4 Sustainable Tourism ... 22
3.5 Impacts ... 23
3.5.1 Ecological Impacts ... 24
3.5.2 Direct Impact ... 25
3.5.2.1 Direct Impact Relevance ... 26
3.6 Visitor Management ... 26
3.6.1 Visitor Management Tools ... 27
3.6.1.1 Tool Efficiency ... 28
3.6.1.2 Carrying Capacity ... 29
3.6.1.3 Education ... 31
3.7 Following Chapters ... 34
4. Education 4.1 Introduction ... 35
4.2 Education Programme Procedure ... 35
4.2.1 Key Outcome ... 35
4.2.2 Objective ... 36
4.2.3 Key Message ... 37
4.2.4 Key Audience ... 37
4.2.4.1 Visitor Characteristics ... 37
4.3 Multitude of Techniques ... 38
4.3.1. Techniques to Fulfil Objectives ... 38
4.3.1.1 Strengths of Techniques ... 40
4.4 Behavioural Change ... 42
4.4.1 Interventions ... 42
4.4.1.1 Positive and Negative Triggers ... 43
4.4.2 Current Models ... 43
4.4.2.1 Linear Behavioural Model ... 43
4.4.2.2 Interpretation Model ... 44
4.4.2.3 Pro-Environmental Behaviour Model ... 44
4.4.3 Current Models and Management ... 45
4.4.3.1 Need for Simplified Model within Management . 47 4.4.4 Giving up Benefits ... 48
4.4.5 New Angle for Future Management ... 49
4.4.5.1 Introduction ... 49
4.4.5.2 Games Provided the Answer ... 50
4.4.6 Motivation to Act of not Act ... 51
4.4.6.1 Centralize Tourists’ Priorities ... 52
4.4.7 Benefits of Destructive Behaviour ... 53
4.4.7.1 Closeness ... 53
4.4.7.2 Touching ... 54
4.4.7.3 Species Specific Benefits ... 55
4.4.8 Altering the Benefit ... 56
4.4.9 Simple Model for Practical Application ... 57
4.4.9.1 Tool Efficiency ... 58
4.4.9.2 Efficiency Variations within the Tool ... 59
4.4.9.3 Tool Combination Increases Efficiency ... 60
4.4.9.4 Tool Combination and Varying Efficiency ... 61
4.4.9.5 Different Outcome for Different Visitors .... 62
4.4.9.6 Partial Behavioural Change ... 62
4.4.9.7 Resource Demand varies with Green Interest .. 63
4.4.9.8 Environmental Investment ... 64
4.4.9.9 Practical Application – Zoning the Need ... 66
4.5 Conclusion ... 68
5. Case Study – Con Dao, Vietnam ...71
5.1 Introduction ... 71
5.2 Vietnam Overview ... 71
5.2.1 Marine Resource and Protection ... 71
5.2.2 Tourism ... 73
5.3 Con Dao ... 74
5.3.1 Con Dao National Park ... 75
5.3.2 Sustainable Tourism vs. Ecotourism ... 75
5.3.2.1 Ecotourism ... 76
5.3.3 Risk of Impact Assessment ... 78
5.3.3.1 Visitor Characteristics ... 78
5.3.3.2 Resource Valuation ... 79
5.3.3.3 Impacts ... 80
5.3.4 Visitor Management ... 81
5.3.5 Practical Application of New Model ... 82
5.3.5.1 Coral Ecosystems ... 82
5.3.5.2 Marine Turtle ... 83
5.3.5.3 Dugong ... 87
5.3.5.4 Conclusion – Practical Application of Model . 89 5.3.6 General Possibilities ... 90
5.3.6.1 Green Profiling ... 90
5.3.6.2 Transparency ... 92
5.3.6.3 Volunteers ... 92
5.3.6.4 Iconic Species ... 93
5.3.6.5 Research Insight/Participation ... 93
5.3.7 Educational Tools ... 95
5.3.8 Overall Recommendation ... 100
Bibliography ... 102
FIGURES (page)
1. Total number of Tourist Arrivals (21)
2. Potential Ecological Impacts from marine tourism (25) 3. Visitors Management Strategies (28)
4. Code of Conduct for the activity of swimming with whale sharks, Australia (29)
5. Different ecosystem reactions, to visitors’ ecological impact (29) 6. Illustrating the flexibility of ecological carrying capacity (30) 7. A model describing how education may lead to altered behaviour (33) 8. Important factors to be included in educational programmes (36) 9. Factors to be included in an efficient educational programme (44) 10. Model of ecological behaviour (45)
11. Green Fins Guidelines for environment friendly diving and snorkelling (48)
12. Different species of marine organisms valued during diving/snorkelling (56)
13. Model to simplify practical application (57)
14. Linking briefing and intervention with divers’ contact rate (60) 15. Visitors and their degree of environmental interest (63)
16. Model to simplify practical application incl. environmental investment (65)
17. Map of Vietnam showing the location of selected priority marine protected area sites (72)
18. The archipelago of Con Dao (74)
19. Characteristics of hard and soft ecotourism as ideal types (77) 20. Dive/snorkelling sites around Con Dao archipelago (82)
21. Coral Conservation sites (83)
22. Green Turtle nesting beaches in Con Dao (85)
23. Sites of seagrass and Dugong occurrence on Con Dao (87)
TABLES (page)
1. Simplified Overview of Thesis Methodology (13) 2. Exploratory research design (15)
3. Marine Tourism – linkages between visitors, the environment and ultimately risk of impacts (24)
4. A selection of marine tourism activities and their potential risk of direct ecological impacts (focus on coral species) (26)
5. Different Techniques within visitor management (27) 6. Use of education to increase tourism sustainability (32) 7. Different Categories of visitors to natural areas (38)
8. Different Visitor characteristics that may lead to increased direct ecological impact (39)
9. Overview of some techniques to reach target audience in marine tourism Settings (40)
10. Practical application of educational tools within management, and its possible efficiency (47)
11. Outcome indicators (51)
12. Different techniques to alter visitor behaviour and their efficiency (61)
13. The most efficient educational tool combination, in order to reduce a specific destructive behaviour (61)
14. Assessing the need for benefit alteration tools (67)
Front picture is taken in Mariana Islands, Guam by David Burdick.
NOAA Photo Library.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries (Wadhawan. 2008).
Marine tourism constitutes almost 50% of annual tourism revenue (figures from 2004), on a global scale, and is rapidly increasing (Fitzpatrick. 2005; Wadhawan. 2008). Such a magnitude in development leads to different anthropogenic stress factors. Activities within the marine tourism branch can lead to direct environmental impacts, as stated by numerous articles (Hof. 2001; Buckley. 2003; Shivlani.
2007). Proper management can reduce these impacts (Ceballos- Lascurain. 1996; Airey. 2007), as well as give incentives for conservation of marine habitats and organisms.
Carrying capacity is a concept within management, i.e. what is the amount of visitors that a location can hold before environmental damage occurs (Ceballos-Lascurain. 1996; Hawkins & Roberts. 1997).
Different factors can alter the ecological carrying capacity, for instance, the regional biological context as well as external anthropogenic impacts. Therefore, since the ecological carrying capacity is not fixed, it may be increased by changing visitors’
behaviour (Hawkins & Roberts. 1997). This is the factor linking education to carrying capacity. Increased environmental awareness is a mean to release the actual pressure on the surrounding environment (Holden. 2000). Education is, according to a number of reports, the most efficient management tool to change visitor behaviour and subsequently reduce the direct environmental impact (Alcock. 1991;
Orams. 1993).
1.2 Case Study Context
The establishment of MPA (marine protected areas) networks, on a global scale, is currently taking place (UNEP-WCMC. 2008). Vietnam is a nation in the process of such a network, with a number of locations acquiring MPA status; as well as developing extensive marine tourism (Canh. 1997; McEwin et al. 2008). This combination introduces a number of challenges. Therefore, all possible tools to facilitate the development of such a combination are beneficial to
increase management efficiency. Since this development in Vietnam is in the initial phase (McEwin et al. 2008), the choice of case study location contributes to the research significance.
1.3 Researcher Context
The author of this thesis has gained experience within the tourism industry, both through an academic perspective and work experience.
Employment as a marine guide has contributed to a reflection regarding educational materials and methods. Such a personal insight, in combination with a degree in tourism development, has proven valuable throughout the research process, but is not without challenges (explained later in this chapter). The author’s lack of in-depth knowledge in social science theory, has shown to provide both advantages and limitations all through the research process.
Some of the academic boundaries have been excluded, potentially resulting in some unorthodox approaches to answer research questions.
1.4 Problem definition & Research question
This thesis is focusing on the direct impacts resulting from the marine tourism industry, and is limited to how education as a visitor management tools can reduce these effects. The author is aware of the indirect impact resulting from marine tourism, and that the negative effects on the environment are of substantially higher magnitude compared to direct impacts. Although educating visitors may reduce these impacts as well, this will only be discussed briefly since a more thorough inclusion of indirect impacts is
beyond the scope of this paper. Education though, is a broad concept and there is an obvious need to define the objectives to a greater extent i.e. what differentiates the use of the tool for attitude change vs. behavioural change. Only after this establishment, can necessary implementation of subsequent action be simplified. How can one decide about the most appropriate material / method for each case? Since the education programme differs, not only with
objectives, but with the target group – how can the most efficient educational tool be found considering the diversity of tourists as a target group? The emphasis of the research problem is how education
can increase the ecological carrying capacity within an area. Such a complex issue has been addressed through an explorative approach.
The below stated research questions have all emerged throughout the thesis process, from the initial primary question:
RQ How can education change tourists’ behaviour and thereby contribute to a more sustainable use of marine resources within the tourism industry?
To answer the primary research question (RQ), a set of secondary sub questions have been developed.
rq1 How can education be used efficiently as a mean to change visitor behaviour
rq2 How does the use of educational tools change with regional/managerial context?
rq3 How can the most efficient educational tool be found considering the heterogeneity of tourists as a target group?
These research questions have been identified to fulfil the following objectives of the thesis:
Objective
1. Establish baseline knowledge regarding education as a visitor management tool 2. Identify the most efficient educational tools, for reducing direct impact on the marine environment
3. Apply findings to the case study location (simplify
implementation within the Con Dao ecotourism development plan) Obviously there are linkages between all objectives, and the above table is merely outlined for a simplified overview. The strategies chosen to accomplish each objective can be seen in the methodology section.
1.5 Research Significance
A partial solution to the negative impact, caused by the rapid tourism development, is thought to be sustainable tourism (Mowforth
& Munt. 2003). To combine the term sustainability, with an industry that utilizes marine resources, management tools are required
(Airey. 2007).
Education is considered one of the most effective tools to decrease the environmental impact (Alcock. 1991; Orams. 1993, 1997), but lack of educational evaluation might limit the efficiency. Many answers are already in practice, but in spite of this, problems concerning the practical use of education within management are plentiful.
Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to compile knowledge and experiences from different sources on a global scale. Since education programmes differ, not only with objectives but with target groups, it is essential to establish guidelines to the choices of appropriate material/method considering the challenges and opportunities of each. By highlighting what has already been tried out, the use of education can be simplified; resulting in a more efficient resource allocation within management.
There is no need to re-discover solutions, but there is an obvious need to make the transition to the second level more
straightforward. The research within this thesis is therefore a significant aid to present and future marine tourism management. The aim of the research is to add to the understanding of the
diversified tool education.
1.6 Research Limitation
Different limitations have been used in this thesis. The research emphasise the link between direct environmental impacts and changing visitors’ behaviour, both in the context of marine tourism. Due to the magnitude of marine tourism; tourism activities within marine protected areas (MPAs) are, whenever possible, highlighted.
The theoretical concepts discussed in this thesis are complex.
Therefore the aim is not to reveal all aspects of learning theory, behavioural models, nor carrying capacity concept. The scope of this work is merely how education can be used to increase ecological carrying capacity, and briefly present different possibilities to what kind of educational tools can be used for such.
2. METHODOLOGY
Summary
To maximise the outcome of this explorative research, a combination of data gathering methods have been utilized. Secondary data, from e.g. literature review, are strengthened by primary data gathered mainly in situ. Data of both qualitative and quantitative character, as outlined in table 1, were accumulated though numerous literature sources e.g. articles, books, documents, reports and multimedia.
Part of mentioned sources was obtained through conference attendance, workshops, informal and formal interviews (direct/
through e-mail) with different stakeholders, as well as observation during fieldwork. Collection of data has been continuous and new insight led to modifications of initial research questions. This necessitated an adaptable approach; providing vital flexibility throughout the research process (Bunce & Pomeroy. 2003).
Table 1: Simplified overview of thesis methodology
Objective Data Approach Purpose Method Activity
1,2,3 Secondary Quantitative
Explanatory/
Descriptive
Literature Review 1 Secondary Qualitative Exploratory
Literature Review 1,4 Primary Qualitative Exploratory Case Study
In-depth interview 1,2,4 Primary Qualitative
Exploratory/
Descriptive Case Study Observation 1,2,3,4,5 Primary Qualitative/
Quantitative
Exploratory/
Descriptive
Interview/
Dialogue
Formal, Informal
2.1 Introduction
New data is not always a necessity to come up with new findings.
Sometimes it is enough to put already existing material together, to get a new perspective on old realities.
The multidisciplinary character of visitor management has an important relevance to the structure of this thesis. Research differs, to a certain extent, with disciplines e.g. biology and
social science. Since the thesis includes topics such as e.g.
conservation in the process of tourism development; a multifaceted issue under current debate, a diversity of fields must be taken into account. Although many perspectives can be included to explain such complex questions within management, at the end of the process social science methodology has been emphasised during this thesis.
Another focus of the research has been the extensive use of
secondary data sources, supplemented by primary data from interviews and observation to draw conclusions (Blaxter et al. 2006).
The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to more efficient visitor management. According to Boyacigiller and Adler (1994):
"...research methods are driving knowledge production rather than the problems and needs of managers, policy makers..." (p.270)
This is a description of some current problems encountered within social science research. The choice of exploration through
qualitative research suits the needs of many management problems (Ali. 1998), and research methods have been chosen accordingly.
2.2 Research Design
The purpose of this thesis is mainly explorative; therefore a qualitative methodology has often been applicable (Cargan. 2007).
The use of a case study, for example, has many benefits for such a purpose. Factors of importance for a qualitative process are e.g.
flexibility and field proximity (Ali. 1998). As seen below, many activities can be used to address exploratory research; both of quantitative and qualitative character. Despite this, the purpose to explore, by its nature, rely mainly on qualitative data. This has proved to be an advantageous research design in the search to answer the research question.
Table 2: Exploratory research design, Modified figure.
(University of Minnesota. 2008)
Use Type
Exploratory Formulate problems more precisely Literature search Research Develop hypotheses Experience survey
Establish priorities for research Interviews Eliminate impractical ideas Analysis
Clarify concepts
Observation
Using quantitative research to outline generalisations is beyond the scope of this thesis. Instead, appropriate quantitative data have been used to e.g. support qualitative findings, as well as provide background information. As seen from table 2, an explorative method is chosen for such a purpose (Tellis. 1997).
2.3 Data Collection
This thesis relies on a range of data collection methods i.e.
triangulation, to overcome the limitations of each; a common
approach within social science research (Gillham. 2000; Blaxter et al. 2006). Such a divergence of methods was used to verify collected data and increase validity, but it also imposed difficulties
(discussed under challenges).
2.3.1 Interview – Informal & Formal
Interviews were conducted to provide essential qualitative
information. This was especially important during the case study research, when in-depth interviews provided vivid insights to the location’s current management situation, information not always found elsewhere. When time was not a limiting factor, semi-structure was preferred, due to its flexibility (Gillham. 2000). Although main topics and key questions were decided pre-meeting, the interview guide enabled modification throughout the process. This ensured adaptability to the situation and person being interviewed, reducing possible interview fatigue in more formal settings; maximising the outcome (Bunce & Pomeroy. 2003). The majority were conducted at
formal location e.g. office, conference. More informal conversations were also carried out, lacking structure to even higher extent.
These were sometimes used to merely become acquainted with certain issues.
2.3.1.1 Sampling technique
The sampling technique used to attain necessary data was of purposive sort (Deflem. 1998). This was a beneficial technique to support chosen explorative research design and case study methodology. Some of the informants were able to contribute with new information and/or new contacts, while others merely provided support to attained data.
2.3.1.2 Informants
This thesis relies on a number of informants; some considered key informants (Bunce & Pomeroy. 2003). All informants are listed here (key informants in italics):
■ Tourists (1, 2)
■ Managers (1)
■ Dive Instructors (1, 2)
■ Researchers (1)
■ Educators (1, 2)
■ NGOs (RIMF1, WWF2) (1)
■ Conservationists (1)
■ Consultants (1)
■ Tourism operators (2)
1 Research Institute for Marine Fisheries
2 World Wildlife Fund
Data contribution was mainly direct (1) but also indirect (2) as a result from observation.
The method used for most informants, beside key groups, was focused interviews i.e. a more rapid form of interviewing with a narrower selection of questions (Tellis. 1997). The purpose was e.g. to cross- check data from differing sources. Relevance of informants’ final contribution differed. If time and resources would have admitted, increased number within the key informant groups would have been included, since collected data did not reach saturation (Bunce &
Pomeroy. 2003).
2.3.2 CASE STUDY Research
The case study was included in the thesis to provide information about present gaps, as well as possible future application of any research findings. Flexibility, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, has been invaluable during the case study research.
Circumstances changed during the whole process (pre-visit, on site, post-visit). Conducting two separate fieldwork periods, with 6 months apart, was very beneficial. As a result research questions could be modified prior to the second period, based on findings from the primary one (Tellis. 1997; Gillham. 2000).
2.3.2.1 Geographical Scale
A variety of destinations, within Vietnam, were visited during the case study periods: Hanoi, Con Dao, Hai phong, Nha trang. The two locations mentioned last were only visited during the first
fieldwork period, while Hanoi and Con Dao were included in both separate timeframes.
2.3.2.2 Temporal Scale
Two separate field periods were conducted, each during 4 weeks duration. First fieldwork was completed in September 2007, while second period was carried out during April 2008; introducing the opportunity to explore locations during different seasons and degree of tourism ((Bunce & Pomeroy. 2003).
Data collection tools during different phases, i.e. pre-visit (1), on site (2), and post-visit (3):
Phase Process Activity
1. Preparation Arrange meetings with informants Increase knowledge (secondary data) Increase knowledge (primary data) Conference attendance
2. On site Interviews (informal/formal, In-depth) Observation (different techniques) Conference attendance
Workshop participation 3. Follow-up Follow project development
Follow-up contact with informants
2.3.2.3 Observation
Different strategies were used for different objectives. In some instances, data was retrieved from complete observation, most of the times though; the role as a complete participant was exercised
(Cargan. 2007). Since one can not observe all factors, selecting key indicators before the fieldwork period simplified procedure. These indicators were:
■ Current use of educational tools
■ Current marine tourism activities offered
The main objective for case study observation was, despite the explorative design of this thesis, limited to answer the question what/which and not why (Ali. 1998). How the tourists behaved were not stressed due to lack of resources, although such baseline information would have provided valuable information regarding the efficiency of future educational tools to change visitor behaviour.
Only in limited instances are such included, when thought to increase understanding
2.3.2.4 In-Depth Interview
The aim of in-depth interviews with tourists on Con Dao, was to reveal lack and limitations of current educational tools, all in an attempt to facilitate future visitor management. Targeting
tourists, required no need for sampling technique. This merely due to very limited amount of visitors found in case study location.
Sampling relied heavily on availability and to a lesser extent convenience (Blaxter et al. 2006). All individuals addressed, but one tourist, were willing to participate in the in-depth interview.
This resulted in:
■ 10 tourists on Con Dao (key informant)
A semi-structure was applied, and the interview guide included themes such as: current marine awareness, resource valuation, and experience of educational tools.
All interviews were conducted in English, which presented
limitations in some situations. Although, during interviews with tourists other than the domestic; this was actually an asset in many occasions. It contributed to comfort, trust and familiarity. Being interviewed is most likely not of highest priority when one is on vacation, therefore the author strived to make the interview procedures resemble informal conversations (Gillham. 2000); since such was thought to benefit the visitor-researcher interaction (Bunce & Pomeroy. 2003).
The duration of the interviews varied between approximately ½ - 1 hour. When the process employed a more conversational structure more time was required. The informants were interviewed one at a time (two exception; 2 friends and one couple). The locations for the interviews were more informal, compared to other interviews.
Throughout the process, data was documented directly, through written notes taken by the researcher. Special emphasis was put on direct quotes, for the strength of its direct use.
2.4 Challenges
The use of methodological triangulation poses many challenges (Blaxter et al. 2006). Instead of allocating all resources to increase the outcome of one selected, such an array of different data gathering methods may lead to limited success of each. The researcher’s lack of previous experience in different data gathering techniques e.g. interviews, observation only add to the risk of such an efficiency decrease. In spite of this, triangulation was used based on research objectives.
The flexibility, mentioned earlier, was partially demanding and required extra attention to keep the research objectives in focus (Gillham. 2000). In some situations e.g. using semi-structured interviews, it may even have reduced the reliability due to
situation/interview adaptation (Deflem. 1998). Not only might the key-informants have been interviewed differently, but the risk of altering the outcome just due to the presence of the researcher also have to be taken into consideration (Blaxter et al. 2006).
Observation can also take place during the interviews (Deflem.
1998). Whenever the observation occurs, the risk just mentioned is always present (Gillham. 2000).
The choice of Vietnam as a case study location, led to site specific challenges. For instance, information was not always accessible, and data differed between sources. The language barrier is obvious. Time of fieldwork coincided with the initial phase in the tourism
development succession, which resulted in limitation of key informants (tourists). This challenge was counteracted, to some extent, since more tourists were present during the second fieldwork period. Important to note, though, is that the current deficiency of tourists in the case study location, is also the reason why Con Dao was chosen; adding to the research significance of simplifying the use of the educational tool before it is to late.
3. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
3.1 Tourism Development
The industry of tourism is rapidly growing and now recognized as one of the leading industries globally, and still the massive expansion rate continues (Wadhawan. 2008). The development, according to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), and their vision forecast for 2020 can be seen in figure 1.
Fig.1: Total number of tourist arrivals (UNWTO. 2009)
3.2 Limiting the Concept
Tourism can be a somewhat confusing phrase since it includes all travelling, regardless of the purpose. This complexity can be seen in one of the definitions of tourism i.e.:
"Movement of people, spatially and temporally, out of their own communities for leisure and business purposes" (BCC. 2009)
Although above tourism definition includes a combination of leisure and business purposes, this thesis will focus on the recreational aspect of the industry only. Another limitation of the research, as stated before, is the focus on marine environments and tourism activities taking place in such locations.
3.3 Marine Perspective Within the whole of this industry, marine tourism is an essential
contributor to its fast growth (Orams. 1999). The global revenue from marine tourism was estimated to approximately € 168bn in 2004 (Fitzpatrick. 2005), compared to total global tourism revenue of € 385bn (2004) (Wadhawan. 2008).
Revenue from tourism in nations with coastal location, results in substantially higher proportion of the GNP (BCC. 2009). Reef based tourism, in particular, has a high value (Burke et al. 2002) and revenue growth have been especially noticeable in locations that inhabit coral reefs (Van’t Hoff. 2001; Shivlani. 2007).
The definition marine wildlife tourism includes all interactions taken place between the visitor and the aquatic milieu, stretching from habitats found in the open oceans to coastal areas, including estuaries (Earhart et al. 2007). The activities within the
definition are usually considered to be restricted to non-
consumptive (sometimes mentioned as non-extractive) utilization.
That is, the biotic and abiotic resources are valued for their pure existence, with externalities such as e.g. beauty taken into
account. This leads to exclusion of consumptive activities such as hunting, collecting, harvesting (Miller. In press); an exclusion adopted throughout the thesis.
3.3.1 Tourism in Marine Protected Areas
For a majority of assigned marine protected areas, conservation of species/ecosystems is one of the main objectives (Browning et al.
2005). Since these natural resources are often the very purpose for visitation, increased tourism in these locations is the result. This could be an increase in divers alone (Gubbay & Welton. 1995), or an overall increase in different marine tourism activities (Badalamenti et al. 2000). In some instances, development of MPAs have taken place after the increase in tourism e.g. in Quintana Roo, Mexico (Wilson. 2006). No matter which comes first, an MPA status or tourism growth; sustainable tourism development is essential to fulfil the above mentioned objective.
3.4 Sustainable Tourism
The current development within marine tourism is not limited to a quantitative progress, but also entails different approaches to increase the sustainability of the industry (Holden. 2000).
Sustainable tourism can be defined as;
“Sustainable Tourism Development meets the needs of present
tourists, host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems”
(WTO. 1995).
It is widely believed that sustainable tourism is to benefit both the industry development itself, as well as earlier discussed conservational aims (Eagles et al. 2002).
3.4.1 Sustainability & Impacts
The whole idea of sustainable tourism is questioning the tourism development model of Miossec and Butler, which state that attraction degradation is the outcome of any tourism development; thereby
leading to visitor decline (Pearce. 1989).
A comparable term to sustainable tourism is Minimum Impact Tourism (BCC. 2009). This term includes the key to avoidance of attraction degradation i.e. minimizing the impact. Tourism development leads to different types of impacts (Ceballos-Lascurain. 1996; Eagles et al.
2002), an essential fact whenever attempting to fulfil the sustainability concept.
3.5 Impacts
The impacts from marine tourism are numerous. The decline in global coral reef distribution, for instance, is stated as a consequence of extensive tourism expansion in coastal areas (Wilson. 2006). The fact that all marine tourism activities depend on natural resources, to different degrees, makes the link obvious: Marine tourism results in impacts (Cater & Cater. 2007).
Table 3: Marine tourism - linkages between visitors, the environment, and ultimately risk of impact (Orams. 1999)
Not all impacts are of negative character, but since the negative impacts are presenting the challenge to sustainable tourism
development; they will also be the centre of attention in following chapters.
3.5.1 Ecological Impacts
Ecological impacts include a spectrum of different effects, from disturbance all through to mortality (fig.2). These impacts can be the result of indirect3 and/or direct human action; the latter includes direct anthropogenic interactions with marine resources (Shivlani. 2007).
3Consuming seafood at the restaurant is example of an indirect ecological impact
Fig. 2: Potential ecological impacts resulting from marine tourism (Kuss et al. 1990)
3.5.2 Direct Impact
These impacts can be the negative outcome followed by visitors’ pure presence or activities that lead to deliberate or accidental impacts (Van’t Hoff. 2001) Marine tourism activities such as e.g.
diving/snorkelling, trampling, glass-bottom boats, wildlife viewing;
may all result in ecological direct impacts (Van’t Hoff. 2001). The correlation between certain activities, in a coral reef context, and risk of direct ecological impact(s) can be seen in table 4.
The extent of impact differs due to multiple factors e.g. time frame of occurrence, site specific characteristics4, magnitude of activity, amount of stressors working in synergy (Shivlani. 2007).
As stated previously, even non-consumptive activities lead to impacts. Some even believe that, considering the extensive tourism growth, non-consumptive impacts are prone to out compete impacts resulting from consumptive activities (Shivlani. 2007).
4 Corals living in low wave areas e.g. outer part of reef flat, are more vulnerable to impacts compared to species inhabiting high energy areas e.g. reef crest
(Shivlani. 2007).
Table 4: Selection of marine tourism activities, and their potential risk of direct ecological impacts (focus on coral species) (Van’t Hoff. 2001).
Activities with Actual and/or potential impacts direct impacts
Snorkelling Physical damage (breakage, lesions) Kicking up sediment
SCUBA diving Physical damage (breakage, lesions) Motor boating/ Physical damage from anchoring Yachting Physical damage from boat grounding
Collecting Contributing to over-exploitation of marine resources
3.5.2.1 Direct Impact Relevance
Although indirect impacts may be the substantial cause for e.g. the global decline of coral reefs, the essential synergy between the two types of impacts needs to be recognised. Direct impact may, for instance, decrease the tolerance against disease (Shivlani. 2007).
Another aspect is the cumulative effect of impacts i.e. increasing use may result in damage not seen during low use intensity (Hawkins
& Roberts. 1997) Therefore, the significance of reducing direct ecological impacts needs to be highlighted. Means and ways to decrease these should, whenever possible, be included in marine resource management.
3.6 Visitor Management
According to Shackley (1990): “anyone who wants to ensure the survival of the species would be well advised to avoid visiting them”. Since total avoidance, for obvious reasons within tourism development, is not always a realistic choice, it is essential for management to find efficient tools to reduce existing stress levels.
For many activities e.g. seal swim; tourists seek level of high interaction, while low avoidance indicates a more positive outcome for the seals (Boren et al. 2007). The answer lies in appropriate management tools, possibly differing with each case, and their
ability to find a compromising solution between these two extremes.
3.6.1 Visitor Management Tools
Management tools are chosen according to what is being managed;
■ Resources
■ Impacts
■ Visitors
Although a combination of the above is a necessity to reach
sustainability (Ecotourism. 2008), this research presents tools used for visitor management. Table 5 presents examples of different types of visitor management techniques, each with strengths and
weaknesses, changing the appropriateness with context.
Table 5: Different techniques within visitor management (Eagles et al. 2002)
Visitor Management Techniques
Reduce use if the entire protected area Reduce use of problem areas
Modify the location of use within the problem areas Modify the timing of use
Modify the type of use and visitor behaviour Modify visitor expectations
Increase the resistance of the resources Maintain/rehabilitate the resource
The aim of all techniques above is to reduce visitor impacts in a location. Different strategies can be used to fulfil this. According to Oram (1999), management strategies can be divided in 4 groups – physical e.g. trail, regulatory e.g. speed limits, economic e.g.
user fee, and educational e.g. poster. Protection of marine resources is the overall objective for most of the MPAs today (Browning et al. 2005), a high aim in need of a multitude of
techniques and strategies. The MPAs in South East Asia, inhabiting coral reefs, are currently lacking efficient management; with only 14% rated as such (Burke et al. 2002). Since extensive resources are often lacking, it is essential to increase the efficiency of the educational tools in use.
3.6.1.1 Tool Efficiency
So far, the main strategy used to minimise direct anthropogenic impacts, within marine tourism, has been regulation (Miller. 2007).
Although, direct control are becoming replaced by indirect control strategies to a higher degree than before. Instead of relying on mechanisms to force behavioural change, some indirect strategies e.g. education and code of conduct depend on behavioural change through voluntary decision (Orams. 1993). This is an essential
component of soft approaches, which are recognised as more efficient visitor management tools (see fig.3).
Fig.3: Visitor management strategies (Airey. 2007)
The efficiency of education is also probably due to the “win-win”
characteristics described by many (Forestell. 1990; Orams. 1999;
Browning et al. 2005) i.e. the outcome is (hopefully) same as when using regulations or other direct mechanism, but education also enriches the visitor’s experience in a positive sense (Bramwell &
Lane. 1993; Orams. 1997), motivating the behavioural change.
The code of conduct for swimming with whale sharks in Australian waters, for example, tries to minimise inappropriate behaviour. As seen in figure 4, swimmers are not allowed to e.g. touch, ride,
photograph with flash, exceed the limit of 10 visitors at a time.
Some of these points, especially the last one, are easy to implement since they enhance visitor experience; while the former benefits from education. Awareness will facilitate the code of conduct process and compensate for the loss of some aims with wildlife interaction; and may ultimately reduce direct impact on marine resources.
Fig.4: Code of Conduct for the activity of swimming with whale sharks, Australia (DEC. 2009)
3.6.1.2 Carrying Capacity
Visitor impact may result in different ecosystem reactions. That is, as seen in figure 5, the relationship between use and damage/change varies. The figure shows carrying capacity thresholds in graph c) and d), indicated by the arrows. Exceeding these limits will lead to area deterioration (see definition above) etc. Since there are no obvious thresholds in graph a) and b), the decision of limits is more subjective in these instances (Hawkins & Roberts. 1997).
a) Linear b) Asymptotic c) Exponential d) Phase shift
Fig.5: Different ecosystem reactions, to visitors’ ecological impact (Hawkins & Roberts. 1997)
The concept carrying capacity has been in use within tourism research since 1980s, to assess impact limitations (Holden. 2000). A definition of Tourism carrying capacity (TCC) is:
«The maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical,
economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors' satisfaction” (WTO)
When applied to tourism estimations, carrying capacity entails different components. According to O’Reilly (1986), there are four elements: social, economical, psychological and environmental. The latter is sometimes referred to as biophysical or ecological
carrying capacity. The latter puts the focus on natural assets (Ceballos-Lascurain. 1996), i.e. marine resources within this
thesis. Different activities lead to different impacts and therefore affect ecological carrying capacity; but the impact can also differ with same activity, depending on use. Figure 6 is illustrating how a marine activity, in this case diving, relates to environmental
stress (Dixon et al. 1993). Letter A indicates stress level when environmental deterioration start to occur. Different management tools e.g. education can increase this level to stress threshold B, by reducing stress/dive (line ON1 replaces ON); thereby also
increasing the total number of dives from D1 to D2.
Fig.6: Illustrating the flexibility of ecological carrying capacity (See text for more information (Dixon et al. 1993)
Different management tools can be used to increase the effective carrying capacity of an area. The combination of soft and hard approaches (see fig.3), can shift the carrying capacity from S1 to S4, also shifting the amount of divers from D1 to D4. In this case the soft approach entailed education of divers; and hard approaches was compromised by e.g. dive site rotation and regulation of dive activities e.g. no gloves, no camera (Dixon et al. 1993).
Most of previous research, focusing on marine tourism activities, has an emphasis on carrying capacity estimates for diving.
Estimations made by Dixon et al. (1993) led to a threshold amount of 4,000 – 6,000 dives per site annually, a limit used by many as a rule of thumb.Such a rule is a simplified reality, since there are variations within each activity as well i.e. different types of dive behaviour result in diverse impacts. At this time it is apparent that the level of damage is more affected by visitors’ behaviour than the actual number visiting the location.
Although attractive, the concept of carrying capacity can be difficult to implement within management (Paz et al. 2003).
Therefore this thesis will not relate to the concept carrying
capacity for a quantifying purpose. Instead, emphasis will be put on the use of educational tools to increase a location’s ecological carrying capacity. Ultimately, the flexibility found within the concept carrying capacity will be centralized; this as an attempt to provide management with a more hands-on approach.
3.6.1.3 Education
Management of marine environments is fairly new, and education in these settings is in its infancy, with limited experience as a
result (Kaza. 1995). Implementations have been most extensive within MPAs (Browning et al. 2005), but education as a management tool is still underutilized (Miller. 2007). Therefore there may be much gain according to the stated efficiency of the tool, when used properly.
This work will focus on in-formal environmental education. Contrary to formal education, the emphasis is on education out of the
academic context (Browning et al. 2005). The centre of attention will be on educating tourists about the marine environment; a setting where educational programmes often use the approach of learning through experience. Even though education and
interpretation are different concepts, they are often used as one (Lück. 2003) and for simplicity so will this thesis.
In the late 1950s’, Freeman Tilden laid the first framework for the use of environmental interpretation within tourism. In his book,
“Interpreting our Heritage”, basic principles was formalised i.e.
interpretation can lead to an enhanced experience for the visitor, as well as increased concern for the location/species (Tilden.
1957). The importance of education, as a mean to reach sustainable development goals, is currently recognised. Agenda 21 stated:
“formal and non-formal education is indispensable in changing people’s attitudes so that they have the motivation to assess and address their sustainable development concerns”. At present, educational programmes are becoming more widely used as a mean to reach sustainability within tourism (Orams. 1995). Such a
development can be accomplished through a variety of educational objectives, as presented in table 6.
Table 6: Use of education to increase tourism sustainability (Olsder & Van der Donk. 2006)
Objectives of education in sustainable tourism
■ Enriching the visitor’s experience
■ Increase awareness
Assisting visitors to develop a keener awareness, appreciation and understanding of the site they visit. Educated tourists can also put pressure on operators, by using consumer power (Browning et al. 2005); in this case through ethical consumerism.
■ Reduce destructive behaviour
Encourage well-considered use of the resource by visitors.
Education can be used to reduce the need for regulations as well as facilitates compliance with existing regulations (Bramwell &
Lane. 1993) e.g. code of conduct standards.
According to many, education is even thought of as one of the most efficient tools to change visitor behaviour, and thereby reduce the direct ecological impact (Alcock. 1991; Orams. 1993, 1997). One of the first models trying to explain how education may lead to
behavioural changes can be seen in fig. 7. According to this, increased knowledge will lead to attitude change, and both are prerequisites for action correction.
Fig.7: A model describing how education may lead to altered behaviour (Kollmuss & Agyeman. 2002)
To increase ecological carrying capacity it is essential to reach the last step in fig. 7. Therefore educational tools that actually lead to action are a necessity. It is challenging to request actions that reduce ‘short-term interest for long-term gain’ (Browning et al. 2005). This is especially true within tourism, when visitors are paying the direct cost for long-term benefits; a fact that may be difficult to accept during vacation. Education provides incentives for the demanding objective of reducing destructive behaviour;
benefiting sustainable use in a long-term perspective.
3.7 Following Chapters
In spite of all known positive attributes of education as a visitor management tool, there are plenty of challenges within the
implementation process. The main one being that very few have assessed the efficiency of a certain technique. A statement from Orams (1999), about education, reveals the need for deeper
understanding: “Many claim it is the answer, very few apply it, and even fewer test its effectiveness”. Due to a lack of evaluation, more work to determine different tools and their overall output within different context would be beneficial to future management programmes. The following chapters will start the process, by
exploring different educational tools and practical application. To some extent, the author disagrees with the above statement. At present, many understand the importance of including education within tourism, as well as management. The problem lies within the fact that; many apply it, but few have enough knowledge to use educational tools efficiently. Without such, a waste of important resources will always be the result.
4. EDUCATION
4.1 Introduction
In spite of positive statements regarding soft approaches in visitor management, visitor education is currently both underutilized and/or used in an improper way (Browning et al. 2005). At present, all messages to stimulate behavioural change, within the context of marine tourism, are usually presented with the topping of marine activities or other positive additions. Maybe it is this topping, and not always the message that leads to altered visitor behaviour.
Effort to increase knowledge and interest in conservational issues are always included in educational programmes; but is that essential to reduce direct impact? Could it be that a shortcut, to the high ambition of stimulating environmental interest, actually exists?
While working to achieve the green long-term goal, maybe there are other, more efficient means that can be used to reach sustainable resource use today.
A visitor’s positive response to a conservational message may be found separate from the message; and perhaps a new angle of
addressing the problem, of direct impact, would be beneficial. If effort is placed on other factors, than to provide the messages we want visitors to be stimulated by, the efficiency of educational tools could probably be increased. The rest of the thesis will
address this statement. Before diving into this new viewpoint, it is essential to briefly outline the link between a reduction in direct impacts and the use of educational programmes.
4.2 Educational Programme Procedure 4.2.1 Key Outcome
One of the primary tasks of an educational programme is to clarify the aim, or preferred key outcome from education (Department of resources and environment, Victoria. 1999). The key outcome will then initiate the establishment of objective(s).
Fig.8: Important factors to be included in educational programmes (Department of resources and environment, Victoria. 1999).
# The general key outcome, discussed in the thesis is “Reduction of direct ecological impacts resulting from marine tourism activities”
4.2.2 Objective
A common problem is that the objective(s), to reach the outcome, are unclear (Ceballos-Lascurain. 1996). By following the SMART
procedure, these problems can be minimised. The objective should be:
S Specific M Measurable A Action Oriented R Realistic
T Time Focused
Evaluation purposes i.e. assessing education success, should be emphasised in the future (Kim. 2008). For such, the measurable factor is of special importance (Department of resources and
environment, Victoria. 1999). Setting the goal to visitors acting in a pro-environmental way (as seen later in this section), is often difficult to assess. Instead it may be beneficial to aim for below mentioned objective. This would provide clearer linkage to the key outcome.
# The general objective, discussed in the thesis is “Reduction of destructive visitor behaviour”
4.2.3 Key Message
According to observations made by Monroe & DeYoung (1993):
“…the environmental education field had moved away from a message- driven focus, where the main concern was comprehension of the issues, to an effects-driven focus, where a stronger focus on behavioural outcomes was added” (p. 182)
Key messages within this thesis are all an attempt to reach the key outcome i.e. reduce direct ecological impact. For such to take place, the educational tools need to result in reduced destructive behaviour.
4.2.4 Key Audience
“you gotta reach ‘em in order to teach ‘em” (Davison et al. 1993).
For education programmes to reach the key outcome it has to be designed with the key audience in mind. Different characteristics between and within visitor categories all affect education
efficiency, as seen in table 7 (Ballantyne et al. 1998). It is essential to determine the target group i.e. in this scenario the visitors causing the direct ecological impact.
4.2.4.1 Visitor Characteristics
The categories in table 7 can be further divided into specific visitor characteristics. By linking these characteristics to their risk of negative ecological impacts, the choice of most effective educational tools will be simplified.
Table 7: Different categories of visitors to natural areas (Olsder & Van der Donk. 2006)
Category Typical attributes
Explorer Individualistic, solitary, rejects purpose-built tourism facilities in favour of local ones
Backpacker May qualify as travel experience rather than understanding local culture. Requires low-cost facilities
Backpacker plus Often experienced travellers, higher budget, genuine desire to learn about culture and nature and require good information
High volume Often inexperienced at travelling, enjoy superficial aspects of culture and natural scenery and wildlife if easy to see, need good facilities
General interest Usually have limited time available for holiday, keen on wildlife when not too hard to see. Need good facilities, although may accept basic conditions for short periods
Special interest Dedicated to a particular hobby, require special facilities (e.g. dive boat, bird watching
guides). Accept discomfort and long travel when necessary to achieve aims, may engage in active involvement (e.g. environmental research
projects). Prefer small groups
Divers, for example, belong to the category Special Interest. Below is a table (8) with a selection of characteristics that may lead to increased ecological impacts.
Table 8: Different visitor characteristics that may lead to increased direct ecological impact. (1) Barker & Roberts. 2004; Uyarra & Côté. 2007 (2) Davis et al. 1995 (3) Uyarra & Côté. 2007
Characteristics Comment
Underwater Impact differs with experience5
Photographer (1)
Open Water (2) Inexperienced e.g. buoyancy control
Cryptofauna Viewing (3) Damage is local e.g. Seahorse, seadragon
4.3 Multitude of Techniques
Since the key message is to promote a behavioural outcome, and not just comprehension of an issue, the educational tools need to be chosen accordingly. There is a variety of techniques that may be used to alter behaviour e.g. through direct
communication, as well as indirectly by developing the identity of a site (White & Vogt. 2000). The latter may change visitors’
behaviour since the environmental concern and interest is apparent, and educating by example is a strong method.
4.3.1 Techniques to Fulfil Objectives
To address a specific objective, all techniques have strengths and weaknesses, an important fact that has to be taken into account.
Some may reach a larger audience (Browning et al. 2005); others may be chosen due to its high level of reliability. An assessment of different educational tools can be seen in table 9. General guidelines like this can simplify visitor management.
5 Results by Rouphael & Inglis (2001) indicate a difference within the group. More experienced photographers lead to higher degree of ecological impact. Such
differences could not be seen by Barker & Roberts (2004).
Table 9: Overview of some techniques to reach target audience in marine tourism settings (Orams. 1999)
4.3.1.1 Strengths of techniques
Here is a brief presentation of some of the techniques’ strengths, with earlier stated objective in mind.
Personal interpretation
Valuable flexibility
The possibility to find the interest of a certain visitor, and custom make the educational tool thereafter, as well as the ability to adapt the information in situ (Howes & Ingamells. 1994); both provide valuable flexibility that may increase efficiency. One
factor that needs to be taken into consideration though, is that the efficiency varies with groups size e.g. during guided seal safaris, Techniques Description Examples Implication Printed
material
Distributing printed material to visitors which describes/
encourage appropriate behaviour
Brochures handed to all visitors which prompt them to e.g.
take rubbish home
Need access to visitors before and during visit
Low-power radio
Broadcasting
important information to visitors via AM radio band
Messages about weather, pollution or recent problem in area
Need access to visitors before and during visit
Signs Displaying printed messages in
appropriate locations
"Dunes being rehabilitated - please stay on track"
Important that wording is positive and sign does not detract from experience
Visitor centres
Structure which forms local point for
area's education effort
Marine Park Visitor Centre
Major financial cost
Personal
Interpretation e.g. guiding
Communication
programme from staff to visitors
Guided walk to seal colony
High quality of person's teaching skills imperative Activities Any activity designed
to entertain and educate
Instruction in surf life-saving
techniques
High quality of person's teaching skills imperative Personal
contact
general contact and communication between staff and visitors
Answering questions about the best beaches/reefs to visit
Availability of staff critical
the seal responses (i.e. direct ecological impact) increased with increasing amount of visitors being guided (Boren et al. 2007).
Visitor centre
Easy input
The following statements regarding visitor centres are examples of the technique’s strengths: “Centralize the education programs”,
“One-stop shop for information” (MPA news. 2007). Visitor centres provide easy access to information, and high level of reliability;
two important factors capable of presenting the key message in an efficient manner.
Easy change
Visitor centres can also affect tourist distribution i.e. by
presenting site information; sensitive locations can be replaced by more resilient alternatives (Cooper. 1991). Providing wildlife interactions of different kinds e.g. aquariums, virtual tours can make the visitor centres attractive as tourism destinations of their own, and substitute some of the in situ activities. Some can even provide more extreme visitor redirection i.e. replace outdoor activities all together (MPA news. 2007). Although the latter maximize the reduction of direct ecological impacts, it is usually not a viable answer within most MPAs, due to high resource demand and visitors different priorities.
Printed material
Throughout the phases
This technique includes e.g. leaflets, brochures and posters. The strength is that the materials can be used within all three
important phases of education i.e. during pre contact, contact and post contact (Forestell & Kaufman. 1990). Since they can be brought out of the site location, one visitor’s use in the post contact phase can be linked to another potential future visitor’s pre contact phase (Kaza. 1995).
