Quality Improvement of Early Primary Education in Ethiopia
A Mixed Methods Study of Save the Children Supported Schools in Amhara and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regions
Michael Wondemu
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITETET I OSLO December 2017
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Quality Improvement of Early Primary Education in Ethiopia
A Mixed Methods Study of Save the Children Supported Schools in
Amhara and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regions
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© Michael Wondemu 2017
Quality Improvement of Early Primary Education in Ethiopia
A Mixed Methods Study of Save the Children Supported Schools in Amhara and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regions
Michael Wondemu http://www.duo.uio.no/
University of Oslo
Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo
v ABSTRACT
Integrating quality with access is a main challenge globally, notably in low income countries such as Ethiopia. The government in Ethiopia has put a special emphasis on addressing issues of quality of education and is supported in its efforts by international agencies, including Save the Children (SC). This study examines quality improvement efforts in early primary education in public primary schools supported by SC in Ethiopia. It has two general objectives: to examine the similarities and differences of SC supported schools in two regions in Ethiopia, namely Amhara and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR) based on Save the Children Norway (SCN) Quality Learning Environment (QLE) and student literacy raw data. It further explores the particular factors contributing to a positive learning environment in the three best performing schools based on their QLE results.
The study employs a mixed method design combining quantitative and qualitative data, but gives more weight to the qualitative findings. Data were collected from the 2015 SCN dataset, interviewees and participant observations. The findings show that schools in the Amhara region are better in terms of the quality of the learning environment than schools in the SNNP region.
The length of time for SC intervention matters for the schools' quality of the learning environment. Schools that achieved the four QLE guiding principles for a quality learning environment have a higher literacy score than schools that did not achieve them.
Particular factors contributed to the quality of the learning environment in the three schools with some differences across them. The factors are pedagogic processes, teacher motivation, special needs education, textbooks for each subject and other learning materials, the use of the mother tongue and the code of conduct, school, parent and community link, and basic school infrastructure and teacher training. Factors that, to different degrees, negatively affected the quality of education in the schools were lack of basic school infrastructure, access to clean water and toilets, and teacher shortages.
The findings of the study are understood based on the three quality concepts of social justice theory: inclusion, relevance and democracy. Understood in this way, the findings have implications for SC and the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MOE). In contrast to the inclusion dimension, basic school infrastructure and teacher motivation are not particularly emphasized in SC's QLE framework. Similarly, teacher motivation, special needs education, access to clean water and toilet facilities and menstrual hygiene products are not addressed in the MOE understanding of quality. In contrast to the relevance dimension, relevance to national education goals is not stressed in QLE. Contrary to the democracy dimension, the use of code of conduct in schools is not included in the MOE understanding of quality.
vi DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my dear father, who gave me unconditional love and support.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks go to my dad, who passed away during the period of writing the thesis, and my mom for her continuous support.
I would like to express my deepest and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Lene Buchert, for her patience, motivation, professional and substantive support. Next, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my co-supervisor, Henok Zeratsion, for his valuable support, notably in the quantitative part of the study. I am also very grateful to the Norwegian Quota scheme for the financial support.
Many thanks to the respondents, especially the students who agreed to participate in the study. I am extremely thankful to my friends, including but not limited to Addis Alemayehu, Arber Ademi, Brook Addis, Endalew Mehari, Hanna Abate, Samuel Kebede and Yonas Bayru. Last but not least, I am extremely thankful to the administrators of the Amhara Education Office and Libo Kemekem District Education Bureau. The research would not have been possible without their support.
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ... v
DEDICATION ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
LIST OF BOX, FIGURES, PHOTOS AND TABLES ... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ... xi
CHAPTER ONE ... 1
INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 The Focus of the Study and its Justification ... 3
1.3 Research Questions ... 6
1.4 Organization of the Study ... 6
CHAPTER TWO ... 8
THE CONTEXT FOR EDUCATIONAL QUALITY IN ETHIOPIA... 8
2.1 The Socio-Economic and Political Background of Ethiopia ... 8
2.2 The Golden Age: Education Policy of the Emperor Regime, 1941-1973 ... 9
2.3 The Education Policy of the Derg Government, 1974-1991 ... 10
2.4 Ethiopian Educational Development from 1991 to the Present Situation ... 10
2.5 The Ethiopian Ministry of Education Definition of Educational Quality ... 13
2.6 The Role of International Organizations in Ethiopian Educational Policy Development ... 14
2.7 The Role of Save the Children in Education in Ethiopia ... 16
2.8 The Quality Learning Environment: Save the Children's Quality Framework ... 18
CHAPTER THREE ... 22
FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS FOR THE STUDY ... 22
3.1 Definitions of and Approaches to Quality ... 22
3.1.1 What is Quality? ... 22
3.1.2 The Human Capital Approach to Educational Quality ... 25
3.1.3 The Rights-based Approach to Educational Quality... 25
3.1.4 The Social Justice Approach to Quality ... 27
CHAPTER FOUR ... 35
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ... 35
4.2 Research Methods and Types of Data ... 36
4.3 Quantitative Data: The SCN Education Data Set ... 37
4.3.1 The QLE Dataset ... 37
4.3.2 Student Literacy ... 39
4.4 Qualitative Data: Fieldwork ... 40
4.4.1 Interviews... 41
4.4.2 Non-Participant Observation ... 42
4.5 Data Analysis ... 43
4.5.1 Quantitative Analysis ... 43
4.5.2 Qualitative Analysis ... 44
4.6 Units and Levels of Analysis ... 46
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4.7 Data Quality: Reliability and Validity ... 47
4.8 Ethical Considerations ... 48
4.9 Major Challenges ... 48
CHAPTER FIVE ... 50
5.1 Best Performing Regions and Schools According to QLE Results ... 50
5.1.1 Best Performing Regions According to QLE ... 50
5.1.2 Best Performing Schools in QLE and Student Literacy Scores ... 51
5.1.3 School Achievement based on Length of SC Intervention...51
5.1.4 Relationship between the Schools' Quality of Learning Environment and Student Literacy .. 53
5.2 Quality Improvement of the Best Performing SC Supported Primary Schools ... 54
5.2.1 The Inclusion Dimension ... 54
5.2.1.1 Basic School Infrastructure and Human Resources ... 55
5.2.1.2 Safe and Healthy Learning Space ... 59
5.2.1.3 Textbooks and other Learning Materials ... 64
5.2.1.4 Pedagogic Processes and ICT Supported Learning ... 66
5.2.1.5 Special Needs Education... 70
5.2.1.6 Teacher Training and Motivation Mechanisms ... 71
5.2.2 The Relevance Dimension ... 73
5.2.2.1 Use of the Mother Tongue ... 73
5.2.3. The Democracy Dimension...75
5.2.2.2 Relevance for National Educational Goals ... 74
5.2.3.1 School Code of Conduct ... 76
5.2.3.2 School, Parent and Community Links ... 77
5.2.4 Administrator, Parent and Teacher Perceptions of Quality of Education ... 79
5.3. Summary ... 81
CHAPTER SIX ... 83
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION... 83
6.1 Summary and Interpretation... 83
6.1.1 Research Question No. 1 ... 83
6.1.2 Research Question No. 2 ... 84
6.2 Implications of the Study ... 89
6.3 Suggestions for Further Research ... 91
REFERENCES ... 92
ANNEXES ... 98
Annex I: Interview Checklist ... 98
Annex II: Observation Checklist... 102
Annex III: Assumptions of Independent Samples T-test ... 105
Annex IV: Normality Test, Skewness and Kurtosis ... 106
Annex V: Test of Reliability ... 108
Annex VI: Consent Form ... 109
Annex VII: Average Score on the 28 QLE Sub standards, by School ... 110
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LIST OF BOX, FIGURES, PHOTOS AND TABLES
BOX
Box 4.1 The QLE Four-point Scoring Scale ... 39
FIGURES Figure 2.1 Map of Ethiopia ... 8
Figure 2.2 Save the Children’s QLE Framework... 19
Figure 3.1 A Framework for Understanding Education Quality ... 23
Figure 3.2 A Framework for Understanding Educational Quality in Africa ... 29
Figure 4.1 Visual Presentation of Embedded Mixed Methods Design ... 36
Figure 4.2 Map of Libo Kemekem District ... 40
Figure 4.3 Data Analysis Visual Presentation... 43
Figure 4.4 A Framework for Comparative Education Analysis ... 46
PHOTOS Photo 5.1 School A classroom ... 56
Photo 5.2 School C outside classroom view ... 56
Photo 5.3 Water tank provided by SC for School A ... 58
Photo 5.4 Ongoing construction in School B ... 63
TABLES Table 1.1 Schools' Average QLE Score and Percentage of Schools achieving all QLE Guiding Principles, by Country, 2015 (it would be better if you could indent this line) ... 5
Table 2.1 Education Budget in ESDP III and ESDP IV, 2005-2015, by Main Stakeholder... 16
Table 2.2 QLE Indicators ... 20
Table 3.1 Framework of Analysis for the Study ... 33
Table 4.1 Types and Sources of Data, by Research Question ... 37
Table 4.2 Number of SCN Schools Sampled in 2015, by Country ... 38
Table 4.3 Category and Number of Informants, by School ... 42
Table 4.4 Examples of Thematising Qualitative Data ... 45
Table 5.1 Average Score on the 28 QLE Sub-standards, by School ... 52
Table 5.2 Schools' Achievement of all QLE Guiding Principles, by Region, % ... 51
Table 5.3 Schools' Achievement of all QLE Guiding Principles based on the Length of SC Intervention, % ... 53
Table 5.4 Student Literacy in Schools Achieving/Not Achieving the QLE Guiding Principles. ... 53
Table 6. 1 Factors affecting Quality in School A, B and C ... 85
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CRC- UN ECCD EFA EGRA ETP FDRE GCE MOE NGO Norad PTA QLE SC SCI SCN SPSS SNNPR SST UNESCO Unicef WB
Convention on the Rights of the Child of the United Nation Early Childhood Care and Development
Education For All
Early Grade Reading Assessment Education and Training Policy
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Global Campaign for Education
Ethiopian Ministry of Education Non-governmental Organization
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation Parent Teacher Association
Quality Learning Environment Save the Children
Save the Children International Save the Children Norway
Statistical Package for Social Sciences
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region Sub-standard
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Children's Fund
World Bank
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background
The issue of quality of education is predominant in the international discourse on education and development. Over the past decade, the focus on international education development has shifted from access to quality. This is because quality is considered as being at the heart of education. It is also believed that achievement in access depends on the quality of education (UNESCO, 2015a; UNESCO, 2005; SC, 2012). The efforts of integrating quality with access is a main challenge globally since millions of children are able to go to school but fail to learn the required basic skills because of poor quality of education (UNESCO, 2015a; SC, 2012).
In 1990, Education for All (EFA) was launched in Jomtien at the World Conference on EFA. EFA was a global commitment to quality of basic education for all children, youth and adults. The declaration identified quality as a prerequisite to achieving equity. A decade later, in 2000, the EFA goals were reaffirmed at the World Conference held in Dakar. Goal 2 and 6 of the Dakar Framework for Action commit nations to the provision of primary education of good quality, and to improve all of its aspects (UNESCO, 2004). However, the planned goals were not met by the 2015 deadline, particularly in the poorest developing countries and conflict-affected states (UNESCO, 2015a). The new global education goal in the post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda also focuses on quality. Goal 4 recognizes that ensuring an inclusive and equitable quality of education is indispensable for achieving the best possible learning outcomes needed to attain sustainable development. It also states that quality of education enhances the skills of literacy and numeracy, problem-solving, cognitive, interpersonal and social skills (UNESCO, 2014).
There is much discussion in the academic and international community on what constitutes educational quality and a quality improvement process. Quality is an elusive, multifaceted concept and difficult to measure. In the academic discourse on quality, the behaviourist, humanist, critical, and constructivist traditions explain the concept of quality differently. The behaviourist tradition has an absolute interpretation of quality, emphasizing the economist view of educational quality. It means defining quality as related to quantitative learning outcomes and cognitive achievement. In contrast, the humanist tradition of quality
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has a relativist interpretation of quality focusing on educational processes (Barrett, Duggan, Lowe, Nikel, & Ukpo, 2006). From the critical theory point of view, quality is defined as the effectiveness in the outcomes of education and value transmission (UNESCO, 2004). The constructivist tradition emphasizes quality as learners actively constructing their own knowledge of the world based on their own experiences (Young & Marks Maran, 1998).
International and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Children's Fund (Unicef), the World Bank (WB) and Save the Children (SC) have their own conceptualization of educational quality. For example, Unicef views quality as related to the issue of human rights, having five interrelated dimensions of learners, environments, content, processes and outcomes (Unicef, 2000). According to Unicef, quality can be improved when the teaching and learning process is implemented in a healthy, safe and conducive learning environment, and when children, parents and the community become active participants in school decision-making (Unicef, 2009). The bilateral-multilateral organizations and international and national NGOs have had a growing influence on quality improvement initiatives. Non-governmental actors, the private sector and civil society in collaboration with national governments have played a key role in this regard. UNESCO, Unicef, and the WB are among the very influential international organizations that are involved in quality improvement efforts, especially in the countries of the South (Abdeljalil & Lauwerier, 2014).
SC is also an important player on the international scene concerning quality improvement efforts. SC was launched in 1919 in the United Kingdom with the aim to improve the lives of children by fostering better education and health care. The agency strives to ensure that children enjoy their right to good quality of education. SC is an umbrella organization, currently consisting of 30 national SC organisations, including SC USA, SC Canada and SC Norway (SCN). All members have a shared vision and common values to address the needs of children globally. The agency has been providing continuous support to education programmes worldwide, thereby informing its Global Education Strategy to ensure access to basic education of good quality (SC, 2016). SCN is responsible for leading, on behalf of SC International, the global initiative on education. “SCN facilitates involvement in education by Save the Children members, and also in global initiatives, such as child rights governance, protection, and health and nutrition, which are led by other SC members” (SCN, 2014, p. 4). SCN is responsible for measuring SC's educational contribution in the global educational strategy (SCN, 2014).
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SC has its own framework for understanding educational quality, which is the Quality Learning Environment (QLE). The QLE is a holistic framework for quality education, designed to foster better learning outcomes for all children in school. QLE has four guiding principles for quality of education. These are emotional and psychological protection, physical protection, active learning processes and improved learning outcomes, and participation. SC uses the QLE framework to examine quality in SC-supported schools.
SC has been providing continuous support to education programmes worldwide to ensure access to basic education of good quality, and performs its work based on the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The agency operates in over 120 nations, mostly in developing countries. Ethiopia is one of the countries and SC has been operating there since the 1930s. SC currently runs an extensive educational programme in Ethiopia aimed at improving the quality of education. It has 39 offices across the country in all the regional states of Amhara, Tigrai, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Benishangul-Gumuz, Somalia and Afar and in the main city of Addis Ababa (SC, 2016).
Over the last two decades, the Ethiopian government has invested highly in education, and huge improvements have taken place in terms of access to education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels (Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MOE), 2014). The introduction of the Education and Training Policy (ETP) in 1994 helped to increase access to education at all levels of the education system (MOE, 2014), but this happened at the expense of quality (UNESCO, 2015b). The 2015 EFA Global Monitoring Report states that Ethiopia achieved large increases in both pre-primary and primary enrolment since 1994. However, the quality of education is poor. Until now, student achievement has not adequately improved, the pupil-teacher ratio is 37:1, and students are not active participants in the teaching and learning process (UNESCO, 2015a).
1.2 The Focus of the Study and its Justification
Presently, Ethiopia has put special emphasis on addressing the issues of quality of education, access, equity, and relevance. The government efforts are supported by international agencies and NGOs. So far little research has been conducted on the role of international NGOs in general or of SC in particular on quality improvement of early primary education in Ethiopia, even though SC has run an extensive education program in the country since the 1990s, specifically in early primary education, aimed at improving the quality of
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education (SC, 2016). Hence, it is worth examining the quality improvement efforts of early primary education (Grades 1-4) in SC supported schools in Ethiopia.
The study has two general objectives aimed at answering 'what' and 'why' questions:
(a) to examine the similarities and differences of SC supported schools in two regions in Ethiopia based on SCN's QLE and student literacy raw data; (b) to explore the factors contributing to a positive learning environment in the schools. The study employs a mixed method design combining quantitative and qualitative data, i.e. the SCN education quantitative dataset and field work qualitative data. The first objective is met using the SCN quantitative raw data. The second objective, which is exploratory, is met through fieldwork to collect qualitative data.
The SCN education dataset consists of quantitative raw data of seven African countries’ student literacy scores, schools' QLE results, and enrolment, retention and dropout rates. The study particularly uses the Ethiopia dataset of schools' QLE result and the student literacy score. The Ethiopia dataset only includes data from the Amhara and SNNP regions.
The similarities and differences of school performance in the two regions are examined using the QLE and literacy data.
The rationale for choosing Ethiopia as a case country was based on the performance of schools in QLE in the seven countries in Africa where SC is active. Based on schools' average QLE score and percentage of schools' achievement of the four QLE guiding principles, the SC supported schools in Ethiopia perform better than in the other six African countries. As can be seen in Table 1.1, out of the sampled 73 schools, Ethiopia has an average QLE score of 2.4 and almost one third (28.8%) of schools achieved the four QLE guiding principles. SC supported schools in Somalia follow with an average QLE score of 2.2 but only 9.8% of schools achieved the four QLE guiding principles. Malawi has an average QLE score of 2.1 and only 1% of the schools achieved the four guiding principles. Uganda, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Niger have average QLE scores of 2.1, 1.9, 1.8, and 1.4 and no schools achieved the four QLE guiding principles.
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Table 1.1 Schools’ Average QLE Score and Percentage of Schools achieving all QLE Guiding Principles, by Country, 2015
Rank Country Schools' QLE
Average
Percentage of schools achieving all QLE guiding principles
1 Ethiopia 2.4 28.8
2 Somalia 2.2 9.8
3 Malawi 2.1 1
4 Uganda 2.1 0
5 Zimbabwe 1.9 0
6 Mozambique 1.8 0
7 Niger 1.4 0 Source: SCN, 2015
Note: The table has been constructed based on the SPSS output using SCN raw data.
Using the Ethiopia dataset, the study identified which schools and regions perform better based on the QLE results. Schools' QLE results were examined in relation to the length of time for SC interventions. Following this, the students' literacy scores were examined in the context of the schools' QLE results.
Researchers, such as Hanushek and Wößmann (2009) and Tikly and Barrett (2013) note that the notion of quality involves basic skills of literacy and numeracy. Efforts to achieve quality of education in early primary education primarily aim at improving student achievement of cognitive skills (McCormac, 2012). According to the EFA goals, literacy is considered one of the fundamental rights, an essential part of the right of every individual to education. It is also one of the most neglected EFA goals (UNESCO, 2006). Poor literacy is one of the prominent challenges that hinder the quality of education, especially in the global South (UNESCO, 2006). International, regional and national assessment tests show that a substantial proportion of primary school students do not have even basic levels of literacy and numeracy (UNESCO, 2010 cited in Tikly & Barrett, 2013). Hence, the efforts to improve the quality of primary education must focus on student learning outcomes of literacy and numeracy. In this respect, this study examines the relationship between the schools' quality of
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the learning environment and student performance using the QLE and student literacy data.
SC collects student literacy data in addition to the QLE data as part of measuring student learning outcomes.
The fieldwork qualitative data are used to compare the best performing primary schools in the Amhara region based on their QLE results. It aims at examining the particular factors contributing to the quality of the learning environment in the schools, and whether these are also important for SC and the MOE.
1.3 Research Questions
The study is guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the similarities and differences of the quality of the learning environment in the SC supported schools in the Amhara and SNNP regions?
a) What schools and regions perform better based on the QLE results?
b) What is the relationship between the schools' QLE results and the length of time of SC intervention in the schools?
c) What is the relationship between the schools' QLE results and student literacy performance?
2. What are the particular factors contributing to the quality of the learning environment in the selected primary schools?
1.4 Organization of the Study
The study is organized into six chapters. Following the introduction, Chapter two provides the contextual background to the study, discussing the socio -economic and political situation of Ethiopia and its education system and the role of international organizations and SC in quality improvement efforts in the country. It discusses understandings of quality in Ethiopia and explains the QLE framework.
Chapter three outlines the definitions and approaches to quality and also introduces the framework of analysis for the study. The framework of analysis was developed by combining three interrelated dimensions of quality in the social justice perspective, namely inclusion, relevance and democracy, with the QLE framework and in view of the MOE definition of quality.
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Chapter four introduces the research design and methodology. It discusses the philosophical assumptions, research methods and types of data, the research site, sampling procedures, units and levels of analysis, reliability and validity issues, ethical considerations, and major challenges of the study.
Chapter five presents the results and analysis of data. The data gathered from the SCN education dataset, interviews and non-participant observations are discussed in the context of the framework of analysis for the study. It identifies the best performing schools and regions from the QLE, examines schools' QLE results in relation to the length of time of the SC interventions, and examines the relationship between schools' QLE results and student literacy scores. It also identifies the particular factors contributing to the quality of the learning environment in the best performing SC supported schools.
Chapter six summarizes the research findings and interpretations in view of the framework of analysis for the study. It also discusses the implications of the study for SC and the government as related to their understanding of quality. It, finally, makes suggestions for further research seen in light of the limitations of the study.
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CHAPTER TWO
THE CONTEXT FOR EDUCATIONAL QUALITY IN ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is located in the horn of Africa and shares its borders with Eritrea, Djibouti, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and South Sudan (Figure 2.1). It has the second highest population in Africa next to Nigeria, estimated at around 102.4 million in 2016 (WB, 2017). The country has more than 80 ethno linguistic groups. It has nine States and two City Councils which are based on settlement, language, and identity. Amharic is the official working language at the Federal level (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE), 2004). According to the 2007 national census, 43.5% of the population are Christians and 33.9% are Muslims (Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (ECSA), 2007).
Figure 2.1 Map of Ethiopia Source: InfoPlease, 2000-2016
2.1 The Socio-Economic and Political Background of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the oldest independent African nation and was never governed under colonial rule (Gordon cited in Bekele, 2004). Agriculture plays a significant role in the Ethiopian economy with 85% of the population being engaged in farming (FDRE, 2004).
Agriculture highly contributes to foreign exports, including coffee, flowers, vegetables, and
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sugar (Bekele, 2004). After the fall of Ethiopia’s communist military regime in 1987, the country engaged in massive fiscal and political decentralization efforts to support sustainable economic development. Although Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, it has invested hugely in physical infrastructure and human resources over the past two decades.
The economy grew impressively by 11.8% annually between 2004 and 2007 (McCormac, 2012) and continued to grow by 10% annually until 2014. Since 2014, economic growth has gradually decreased because the 2015 El Niño climate change caused severe drought in some regions of the country (Sudan Tribune, July 6, 2016).
Since the 1940s, Ethiopia has experienced three systems of political governance, each with a different education policy. The first one was the emperor Haileselasse regime that lasted until 1974. The second was the socialist system during 1974-1991, and the third one is the current federal administration which started in 1994 governed by the Ethiopian People’s Republic Democratic Front (EPRDF) (Bekele, 2004). Currently, Ethiopia has experienced violent anti-government protests, mainly by the Oromo people. The ongoing protests started in November 2015 and led to the death of an estimated 400-500 people. The plan to expand the boundaries of Addis Ababa to Oromia region was the initial cause of the protest. It then expanded to include political freedoms that challenge the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) dominated government structure (Stratfor, 2016).
In the following section, the aims and development of the education system are discussed from the regime of the Emperor (1941-1973) to the socialist system that was replaced in 1991 by the current federal system of governance. It focuses particularly on the increasing importance of the issue of quality over access to education.
2.2 The Golden Age: Education Policy of the Emperor Regime, 1941-1973
In contrast to the previous Orthodox Christian dominated education system, the emperor Haileselasse regime introduced the golden age of modern education in 1940. The emperor administration strongly believed in the centrality of education as a vehicle of growth and development. During this period, the education policy fostered incentives to encourage students to join education. Brilliant students were given an opportunity to join vocational secondary schools with free accommodation. In the 1940s and 1950s, there were not enough schools available to students since schooling was free for all and therefore ensured access to education for the poorer sections of the population. In 1950, the first higher education institution, the University College of Addis Ababa, was established (Negash, 2006).
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In the 1960s, the MOE introduced a new education policy, which was functional until 1974. During this period, the focus on technical and vocational training continued to be prioritized. Vocational training was provided along with formal education. The policy enabled the government to expand the public school system. In 1971, there were only 1,300 primary and secondary schools and 13,000 teachers. Besides, the education system suffered from a shortage of qualified teachers, financial constraints, and overcrowded classrooms (Teferra &
Altbatch, 2003).
2.3 The Education Policy of the Derg Government, 1974-1991
Following the Derg socialist government which came to power in 1974, the Ethiopian education policy was dramatically changed to the Marxist-Leninist ideology. The economy was socialized and the education policy defined quality as preparing students to respond to the demands of the socialist ideology. Priority was given to research activity, and science and technology (Negash, 2006). During this period, ensuring the right of every citizen to free primary education was prioritized in support of the socialist ideology of education for the masses, i.e. education for production, for research and for political consciousness. Public ownership of schools was considered to be the best strategy to enhance access to primary education.
The net national enrolment ratio at primary and secondary levels dramatically improved compared to the previous regime (Bishaw & Lasser, 2012). According to Negash (2006), the gross enrolment ratio increased from 15.8% in 1974 to 36.2% in 1988-89.
Primary education expanded throughout the country, but the attempt to increase learning spaces significantly affected the quality of education. Educational quality decreased because of the scarcity of human and financial resources. Lack of trained teachers, inadequate teaching and learning materials, and overcrowded classrooms were among the problems that hindered the quality of education. The education policy and the curriculum were influenced by Eastern European governments, mainly Eastern Germany, Bulgaria and Hungary since policy advisors were assigned from Eastern European countries to participate in the curriculum development process (Bishaw & Lasser, 2012).
2.4 Ethiopian Educational Development from 1991 to the Present Situation In 1991, the current government of Ethiopia, EPRDF, overthrew the socialist regime after a long and devastating civil war. EPRDF has prioritized investment in education, believing that sustainable development relies on the expansion and provision of quality of
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education for all citizens. Three years after EPRDF seized power, Ethiopia introduced the Education and Training Policy (ETP) in 1994. This was the third education policy in the country since 1945. The ETP played a pivotal role in creating opportunities for the private sector to make its own inputs into the education sector. Following the initiation of this policy, the MOE managed to mobilize external support through bilateral or multilateral agreements to improve the education sector. The Ethiopian Government has given due attention to early childhood care and education in the ETP. Much emphasis was also given to the expansion of tertiary education, and the enrolment rate in higher education has consistently increased (Negash 2006).
The ETP emphasized access, equity, efficiency, quality and relevance in education as important to ensure sustainable development (Bishaw & Lasser, 2012). As a result, the gross enrolment in primary schools doubled between 1990 and 2004. According to the 2015 EFA Global Monitoring Report “the percentage of children who had never been to school decreased by remarkable rates from 67% in 2000 to 28% in 2011” (UNESCO, 2015a, p. 81).
The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) increased from 41.7% for girls and 48.8% for boys in 2001 to 90.1% for girls and 95.1% for boys in 2014. In 2014, over 30,000 schools provided educational services for children (UNESCO, 2015b; Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland (MFAF), 2014). Primary education is divided into basic education/primary first cycle (grades 1–4) and general primary education/primary second cycle (grades 5–8).
The ETP was designed based on the rights-based approach to education, recognizing the right to education as a human right. Yodit (2009) notes that:
The ETP envisages that “basic education” will be the right of all individuals of the country and the education system will ensure that the provision and spread of education will be equitable in the different parts of the country, with particular reference to girls (p. 43).
Since 2000, Ethiopia has been committed to achieve universal primary education by the year 2015. The country strived to expand access and improve efficiency, equity (in relation to gender and regional disparities), quality and relevance in education. UNESCO and Unicef (2007) state that these four key elements are essential in the rights-based approach to education. Among these, Ethiopia has given greater emphasis to ensuring access to primary education of good quality. There was continued emphasis on making basic and primary education free of charge in public schools.
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Within the framework of the ETP, the Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) (I-IV) was launched in 1997 (MOE, 2008). It is a long-term, 20-year education sector indicative plan to achieve universal primary education by 2015. It is revised every five years and the fourth cycle of the plan was finalized in September 2015. According to the MOE:
ESDPs I and II concluded in 2001/02 and 2004/05, respectively, with remarkable success in expanding access to primary education. Primary school enrolment was boosted from 3.7 million in 1999 to 8.1 million in 2000/01, and grew to 13.5 million in 2005/06. During the same period, the gross enrolment rate increased from 61.6% to 91.3%, and the net enrolment rate grew from 52.2% to 77.5% (MOE cited in UNICEF, 2010, p. 1).
However, achievements in access highly compromised the quality of education and affected learning outcomes. Educational services in schools also declined in quality because of rapid expansion. In response, the third phase of the ESDP was launched in 2006. It had more emphasis on universalizing access to quality primary education by 2015, and to quality secondary education by 2025 (MOE, 2010). It was designed in line with the priorities of the Millennium Development Goals, i.e. achieving good quality universal primary education and gender equality by 2015 (Yodit, 2009). To that end, in 2007, the MOE introduced the General Education Quality Improvement Program (GEQIP) to improve the quality of education in Ethiopia. The program has four key areas of intervention; (a) the Teacher Development Program; (b) curriculum improvement; (c) leadership and management; and (d) the School Improvement Program (MOE, 2008). By doing so, Ethiopia has made significant progress in some aspects of quality of education compared to the previous years. For instance, more trained teachers were made available, and the teacher-pupil ratio decreased from 32:1 in 2004/05 to 16:1 in 2008/09 in early primary education (MOE, 2010).
During the implementation period of ESDP III, access to education increased at a higher rate at all levels of the education system, but challenges related to quality were still rampant (MOE, 2010). The average qualifications of teachers had gone down; many schools, particularly at the primary level, were constructed using non-durable materials which affected children’s motivation to attend and remain in school. There were also insufficient qualified teachers, primarily for mathematics and science. The availability of teaching and learning, and ICT materials was poor. Student achievement also gradually decreased compared to the previous years (MOE, 2010).
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The ESDP IV plan was introduced with the intention to address these challenges. It has “a consistent focus on the enhancement of the teaching and learning process and the transformation of the school into a motivational and child-friendly learning environment”
(MOE, 2010, p. 6). The country started to implement the fifth Educational Sector Development Programme (ESDP V) in September 2015. It conceptualizes quality based on the components of GEQIP, namely quality of teacher and leader development; curriculum, teaching and learning materials; and school improvement initiatives. Compared to the GEQIP, the ESDP V has two additional components of quality: the use of ICT; and quality assurance initiatives.
2.5 The Ethiopian Ministry of Education Definition of Educational Quality As stated above, the MOE defines quality based on the four key elements of GEQIP:
teacher development; curriculum improvement; leadership and management; and school improvement. MOE (2008) notes that, “the GEQIP takes a holistic approach to improve the quality of general education by adapting the concept of the school effectiveness model” (p.
4). The GEQIP aims at improving quality, including inputs, outputs, and processes (McCormac, 2012).
The first element of quality, i.e. teacher development, stresses that quality relies on an increased supply of academically qualified, motivated and ethically trained teachers, and on in-service and pre-service teacher development efforts in primary and secondary education.
The second element, curriculum improvement, includes re-arranging and updating the content of the curriculum, and increasing the availability of textbooks and teacher guides. The third component of quality which is capacity development for education sector planning and management, aims at building the capacity of federal and regional level strategic planning by increasing human and financial resources (MOE, 2008).
The fourth element of quality is school improvement. The aim is to ensure that schools achieve minimum standards to support effective teaching and learning in a healthy and safe environment. It encompasses four key aspects: improving an active teaching and learning process; ensuring instructional leadership and management; creating a conducive and attractive learning environment by providing basic operational resources to schools; and encouraging community participation in resource utilization and in school decision making processes (MOE, 2008). These aspects are highly related to the SC core principles of QLE as will be discussed below.
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As stated above, the current ESDP V conceptualizes quality by adding two core components. According to MOE (2015):
The use of ICT includes increasing the use of ICT in education by expanding and improving ICT infrastructure at all levels, producing and widely distributing digital education resources and building the ICT skills and capacity of teachers and leaders to support curriculum delivery. Quality assurance also means providing oversight of teacher skills through licensing of the school’s teaching and learning environment through inspection and of overall system performance through regular assessment of student achievement (p. 55).
The development of education and of policy-making in Ethiopia is undertaken in collaboration with external and internal partners. As discussed below, major multilateral and bilateral organisations have a long presence in Ethiopia as do international and national non- government organisations, such as SC.
2.6 The Role of International Organizations in Ethiopian Educational Policy Development
During 1955-1974, the United States and Sweden were the major countries supporting the Ethiopian education sector and policy reform through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). Negash (2006) notes that during the golden age period, the education policy was also shaped by UNESCO and the WB with the aim of human capital expansion; but UNESCO had the upper hand. During this period, UNESCO suggested that the Ethiopian education policy should emphasize the “role of education in the economic development of the state, with the aim of investment in human capital via the promotion and eventual expansion of the education system” (Negash, 2006, p. 13).
After the Derg socialist government took power, the USAID role in Ethiopian education policy reform stopped because of the ideological change. However, Sida continued to provide assistance throughout the entire period. Sida supported the newly introduced education policy and curriculum in collaboration with German aid agencies (Negash, 1996).
Under the Derg regime, one important policy change was adopted based on an equity driven reform. This policy is based on the right of every citizen to free access to primary education.
Unlike USAID, many Eastern European countries and, significantly, Sida supported this policy reform to ensure access to primary education for all (Bishaw & Lasser, 2012). Sida
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also supported the efforts in primary education development in the rural areas during 1975- 1990 by constructing schools, and providing teaching and learning materials.
Since 1991, while maintaining the main financial responsibility, Ethiopia has received substantial financial and non-monetary support for the ESDP from international donors (Table 2.1). The role of donors in ESDP is to participate in coordination of the policy dialogue and to provide technical assistance in the implementation process, mostly in primary education, focusing on curriculum and staff development, and teacher training. Donor assistance was provided as direct budgetary support and not tied to any specific part of the sector programme (Lasonen, Kemppainen & Raheem, 2005). During 2005-2015, of the total cost of 11.1 billion USD for the education sector in ESDP III and ESDP IV, 2.8 billion USD (25.4%) was covered by bilateral and multilateral donors and NGOs. Table 2.1 shows that the donor contribution increased annually but has slowed since 2011. According to MOE (2015), the ongoing economic growth in the country enabled the government to cover most of the education budget from taxation. During the period of ESDP IV, the government budget to education was increased from 6.5 billion Eth. birr in 2010/11 to 8.4 billion Eth. birr in 2014/15. Overall, the proportion of the education budget of the total budget increased from 20% during 2005-2010 to 25% during 2011-2015 (MOE, 2015).
The country adopted four major reforms supported by international organizations:
decentralized management; universalization of primary and post-primary education; cost sharing (in tertiary education) to ensure additional funding for primary education; and the 70- 30 quota enrolment policy1 in natural and social sciences in favour of science and technology with the aim to foster economic development (Molla, 2013).
As Oulai, Lugaz, Minas and Teklehaimanot (2011) note the non-monetary support by international donors to the ESDP has been massive. Since 1991, the WB, Sida, UNESCO, Unicef, USAID, SC, DFID, Irish Development Cooperation, and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad) have played a pivotal role in Ethiopian education policy reform and practice.
1 The government introduced the 70-30 quota enrolment policy aimed at increasing the number of students enrolled in natural science streams in higher education. All public universities should allocate 70% of the admissions to natural science subjects and 30% to social science subjects.
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Table 2. 1 Education Budget in ESDP III and ESDP IV, 2005-2015, by Main Stakeholder
ESDP III ESDP IV Total
Year 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2005-2015
Bilateral, Multilateral, NGOs Contribution
USD million
38 94 191 268 305 382 385 387 395 400 2.8
Eth. birr billion
0.3 0.8 1.7 2.9 4.8 6.5 6.8 7.3 7.9 8.4 47.4
MOE
USD million
1.08 0.9 1 0.87 0.7 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.8 0.9 8.3
Eth.
birr
billion 8.7 8.9 9.8 9.2 8.7 11.7 12.9 14.5 16.2 18.3 118.6
Total Education Budget
USD million
1.12 1.09 1.19 1.14 1.01 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.3 11.1 Eth.
birr
billion 9 9.7 11.5 12.1 13.5 18.2 19.7 21.8 24.1 26.7 166
Source: Adapted from MOE, 2008; MOE, 2015
Note: 2015/16 data are not available. The MOE contribution and the total education budget declined in USD in 2006/07, 2008/09, 2009/10 because of the currency depreciation of the Ethiopian birr against the USD.
The WB has given policy recommendations through consultancy and research. It outlined policy options in collaboration with national policy stakeholders. UNESCO was involved in strengthening national educational capacities by giving training, technical advice, policy evaluation and policy advice. SC has also been an important player in the development of the national early childhood education curriculum in order to improve access to early primary education in disadvantaged areas (SC, 2016).
2.7 The Role of Save the Children in Education in Ethiopia
The SC intervention in Ethiopia began in the 1930s. The first permanent offices in Ethiopia were set up in 1965 by SC-Sweden and in 1974 by SC-UK. The agency’s earliest work focused on providing humanitarian and emergency relief with the aim to address the
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famine that devastated significant parts of Ethiopia. Presently, SC intervenes in different programmatic areas, mainly health and education, nutrition and food security, water, sanitation and hygiene, child protection, and child rights governance. In 2012, the SC member organizations of Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, UK and USA came together to form a single organization, called Save the Children Ethiopia (SC, 2016).
SC has been supporting educational activities in Ethiopia in collaboration with the MOE. In recognition of the main objective of SC to support national efforts based on child- rights principles, the agency has been working closely at the policy level with the MOE’s departments of education and development. SC also works with Regional Education Bureaus supporting public schools in their efforts to ensure educational quality. The agency runs an extensive educational programme in the country to expand access and improve the quality of education. SC (2016) states that:
While nearly all children now have access to primary education, the quality of education is low, and the average student now scores lower on national assessments compared to a decade ago. SC supports early grade reading programs in nearly 3,000 schools for more than one million students that include teacher training, improvements in classroom environments, and community mobilization (....) it also runs teacher training and alternative basic education programs. In addition, SC is providing access to education for refugee children that benefit more than 125,000 students in 2016 (p. 1).
SC supports the MOE by providing educational assistance under the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD), Education for Youth Empowerment (EYE) and Education in Emergencies (EiE) programs. ECCD aims at strengthening the Emergent Literacy and Maths (ELM) skills of students in its preschool programs. During 2008-2014, SC implemented 46 educational projects by spending 50 million US dollars. During this period, the agency constructed 313 primary schools, 272 alternative basic education centres, 20 satellite classrooms, 86 teacher residences, 3 education offices, and also some school laboratories (SC, 2014a).
SC has provided continuous educational support to improve children’s literacy skills under the Literacy Boost program in two phases. The first one was during 2010-2012, and the second during 2011-2014. The program aims at improving learning outcomes and quality of primary education in the country. It focuses on enhancing children's skills of literacy: letter
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knowledge, vocabulary, fluency, accuracy and comprehension. Literacy Boost provides broad-based community mobilization for education. It has contributed to the increase in student literacy by 24% in the supported regions. Within this program, SC provides technical and financial support for schools. SC examines the output of this program using the QLE (SC, 2014a).
2.8 The Quality Learning Environment: Save the Children's Quality Framework SC monitors the results of its educational programs and interventions. This is done in line with SC's Global Education Strategy (GES) which provides a global outcome indicators framework to monitor all SC education interventions in three areas, namely access, quality and literacy. The global indicators for access are used to understand the availability of educational services in SC-supported schools. QLE is used to examine quality in SC- supported schools. Literacy is used to measure learning outcomes (SC, 2013).
At the 2010 global SC education conference in Cambodia, SCI member organisations agreed to formulate a holistic quality framework for education, i.e. the QLE framework. It is globally implemented as a framework to support ECCD and basic education in stable and fragile contexts. It is designed to foster better learning outcomes for all children in school. It was developed over a period of two years by actively involving educational professionals and practitioners within and outside of SCI. QLE views quality as a multi-dimensional and complex construct which is ensured by collaborative efforts, including learners, teachers, school staff, administrators, government, private sector, parents, families, civil society and communities (Heijnen-Maathuis & Christensen, 2016).
During 2012-2016, more than 40 countries used the QLE framework as a monitoring and planning tool for quality in ECCD and basic education programs (Heijnen-Maathuis &
Christensen, 2016).
Countries have contextualized and translated the QLE framework and selected how to best use the framework in their context and programmes. In Nepal for example, the QLE is used as a School Self-Assessment (SSA) framework to inform and monitor school improvement, in Cambodia it is used to discuss gaps and priorities for sector planning with Government partners and in Indonesia the QLE is used to assess the inclusiveness of the education system at different levels (Heijnen-Maathuis &
Christensen, 2016, p. 6).
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QLE has four guiding principles for quality education, and each of these has its own comprehensive indicators to assess and monitor quality (SC, 2013). Figure 2.2 presents the four guiding principles of QLE, namely emotional and psychological protection, physical protection, active learning process and improved learning outcomes, and parents and local community participation. It has two contexts for understanding educational quality: a development and an emergency context. In the development context, educational quality can be improved through developing children’s basic literacy skills and their critical thinking, communication, social and practical skills. In an emergency context, access to education of quality is ensured by developing a child friendly learning environment (SCN, 2014).
Figure 2.2 Save the Children’s QLE Framework Source: SC, 2013, p. 12
SC also developed indicators to monitor the four general principles of quality of education. Table 2.1 presents the indicators that are categorized for each of the four principles of QLE. The indicators include, amongst others, a code of conduct in school, a school management plan, safe learning environment, teacher training and professional development, the use of interactive teaching methods and the mother tongue, and parent-community collaboration in school. The number of indicators by QLE guiding principle differs. For example, comparatively more are indicated for QLE guiding principle 3, i.e. active learning process and improved learning outcomes, which has 12 indicators, and to QLE guiding principle 2, i.e. physical protection, with 7 indicators. In contrast, there are only 5 indicators for QLE guiding principle 1 and 3 for QLE guiding principle 4.
20 Table 2.2 The QLE Indicators
1. Emotional and psychological Protection
2. physical protection 3. Active learning process, improved learning outcomes
4. Close collaboration between school and parents/community 1.1. Code of conduct for
learners and teachers
2.1. Safe learning spaces 3.1. Teachers are present for their classes
4.1. School management Committees, Parent teacher association includes representatives from the community
1.2. School has a mechanism in place for receiving and responding to complaints from fellow learners and teachers
2.2. Safe drinking water is available for learners and staffs
3.2. Teachers have specialized training and national qualifications
4.2. Teachers and parents collaborate on key issues affecting the children's learning process, such as absenteeism, sickness etc.
1.3.Learning environments free from violence, intimidation, bullying and harassment
1.4. The teacher interacts with all learners in a positive and respectful manner regardless of their background
2.3. Adequate sanitation facilities
2.4. Safe play areas
3.3. Teachers are provided with continuous support to improve practice
3.4. Learning is supported through the use of relevant visual aids and other teaching materials
4.3. Parents and communities are trained in how they can support the learning process
1.5. Teachers are trained in psychosocial support to detect cases of abuse or trauma among their students and provide support
2.5. Accessible learning environment in terms of hours, location and fees
3.5. Teachers develop lesson plans
2.6. Learners participate in health promotion programs
3.6. Teachers use of mother tongue
2.7. School disaster management plan
3.7. Teachers ask individual questions and interact with the learners
3.8. Teachers use informal and formal learning assessment tools
3.9. Teachers are trained on child rights and protection 3.10. Learning participation is ensured during
development and
implementation of teaching and learning services 3.11. Learners participate actively in decision making activities in schools
3.12. The learning environment encourages expression of child rights
Source: SC, 2014b, p. 7
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It is also noticeable that the QLE indicators stress quality processes more than inputs and outputs. Quality processes relate to a conducive and safe learning environment, teacher training and ongoing professional development, student-parent-community participation, code of conduct, and participatory teaching methods. Of important quality inputs in other thinking (as will be discussed later), the QLE indicators do not include basic school infrastructure and human resources, such as classrooms, a school library, and the availability of teachers. Of important quality outputs (as will also be discussed later), there is no emphasis on academic achievement, literacy and life skills in the QLE indicators.
The QLE guiding principles are in many ways consistent with the MOE definition of quality. In both cases, there is strong emphasis on quality processes. For example, the first component of GEQIP, i.e. teacher training, is also reflected in the QLE which stresses that teachers must be trained to be able to undertake active learning processes and improve learning outcomes. Aspects of the fourth component of GEQIP, i.e. school improvement, are highly related to the core principles of QLE since creating an active teaching and learning process, having a safe and conducive school environment and physical protection, and ensuring close collaboration between school and community, are all vital to ensure quality of education and support school improvement.
Countries, such as Nepal, Cambodia and Bhutan have contextualized the QLE guiding principles and indicators in their national quality of education framework. In Nepal, the QLE is used to examine school improvement in national school self-assessment. In Cambodia, it is used to explain priorities and limitations for sector planning with government partners. In Bhutan, the QLE is adopted by the government as the national quality framework for ECCD (Heijnen-Maathuis & Christensen, 2016).
Thus, over time in Ethiopia the focus has shifted from access to quality of education, notably after the introduction of GEQIP in 2007. This is because massive improvement in access during the previous periods highly compromised the quality of education which is poor in early primary schools. In response to this, SC is an important contributor to the efforts to improve educational quality in collaboration with MOE and other stakeholders. The SC QLE framework is a comprehensive framework which focuses on quality processes based on specified indicators according to four guiding principles.
In the next chapter, this framework is seen in the context of other discussions of quality in order to understand its comparative value. It is based on this discussion that the framework of analysis for the study is developed.
