The role of the teacher training institutions in ensuring equitable and inclusive education in Mexico: A comparative study in a rural and an urban school.

The role of the teacher training institutions in ensuring equitable and inclusive

education in Mexico

A comparative study in a rural and an urban school

Gema Alcaraz Torres

Master of Philosophy in Comparative and International Education Institute for Educational Research

University of Oslo

December 2017

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© Gema Alcaraz Torres 2017

The role of the teacher training institutions in ensuring equitable and inclusive education in Mexico: A comparative study in a rural and an urban school.

Gema Alcaraz Torres http://www.duo.uio.no

Print: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo

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Abstract

Teachers are known to be the main factor in improving education; several studies show that children with a deprived background get excluded by the education systems. One way of exclusion occurs when teachers are not equipped to address their special needs; but how can teachers become equitable and inclusive in their teaching? Is it possible to educate all? And more important, is it possible to provide quality education for all? Initially this thesis will explore the importance of equity and inclusion (E&I) in education, and how teacher education can be a vehicle to achieve it.

Through a qualitative method, this study seeks to understand the influence of teacher training in E&I Mexico, and to compare urban and rural schools and some of the diverse cultural contexts in the country. This study considers the perception that teachers from Teacher Training Institutions (TTI), TTI students and primary school teachers have of education, equity, inclusion, the TTI curricula, of the contexts of the rural and urban schools and about the policy making process. The data was obtained through semi structured interviews and unstructured observations that complement a better understanding of the conditions in the TTI and in the primary schools. The Education 2030 framework for action provides the framework for this study.

The findings of the study will show how teacher education leads to inequity in Mexico’s education system and that the educational policies cannot cope to provide inclusive education to disadvantaged groups, specifically the rural children and those with deprived socio- economical background. This study concludes that changes in the TTI curricula are needed, TTI teachers’ capacity is limited and access for TTI students to do teacher practice in rural schools is restricted. Furthermore, a more proper and fair allocation of resources is required to promote equitable and inclusive education for all.

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Acknowledgements

First, I am very thankful Tove Kvield, for your time and consideration. Thanks for all your availability and specially for your patience to correct me and the guide me to achieve this work.

I highly appreciate the support I received from the people at the CIE program at UIO, to the administrative staff and the teachers and lecturers who inspired me to complete this study.

Thank you so much Camila for arranging everything and making things happen for me. I am forever grateful to all the participants for the kindness, sincerity and passion you put in this work. Lastly, this work is dedicated to my mother, the best teacher I know; a warrior who fights every day from the classroom trying to make a difference in children’s lives.

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List of tables and figures

Tables

Table 2.1. The use of pedagogical materials in rural and urban schools……….23

Table 2.2. Children with access to computers at home from rural and urban schools………….24

Table 2.3. Children with access to books at home from rural and urban schools………24

Table 2.4. The mother’s years of schooling in rural and urban schools……….24

Table 4.1. Detailed description of the participants (TTI teachers) ………44

Table 4.2. Detailed description of the participants (TTI students) ……….44

Table 4.3. Detailed description of the participants (Teachers from the rural school) ………….44

Table 4.4. Detailed description of the participants (Teachers from the urban school) ……….45

Figures

Figure 2.2. The structure of the TTI curriculum………14

Figure 3.1. The targets of the SDG4……….30

Figure 4.1. Map of Mexico and the research locations………...40

Figure 4.2. Map of the Sinaloa state and the research locations……….41

Figure 4.3. The TTI facilities………42

Figure 4.4. A classroom in the rural school………42

Figure 4.5. The computers room in the urban school……….43

Figure 4.6. A summary of the coding and organization of the data………46

Figure 5.1. A comparison of the schools’ conditions and pedagogical materials……….59

Figure 5.2. Classroom conditions in the urban school………61

Figure 5.3. School facilities in the rural school……….62

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A cronyms

CONAPO CONEVAL CONAFE EFA E&I EN INEE INEGI MES MDG NCSE OECD PISA SDG SEP SNTE TTI UNESCO UNICEF UN

Consejo Nacional de Poblacion

Consejo Nacional de Evaluacion de la Politica de Desarrollo Social Consejo Nacional de Fomento a la Educacion

Education For All Equity and Inclusion Escuela Normal

Instituto Nacional para la Evaluacion de la Educacion Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia

Mexico’s Education System Millenium Development Goals

National Council for Special Education

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Programme for International Student Assessment

Sustainable Development Goals Secretaria de Educacion Publica

Sindicato Nacional de los Trabajadores del Estado Teacher Training Institution

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization The United Nations Children's Fund is a United Nations

United Nations

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ... 1

1.1 The research problem ... 2

1.2 Justification and significance of the study ... 4

1.3 Research questions ... 4

1.4 Definition of terms ... 5

Children from disadvantaged schools……….5

Equity in education……….………....6

Inclusion in education……….7

Urban and rural schools……….…….…7

1.5 Structure of the thesis... 7

2 Literature review ... 8

2.1 Equity in the education context ... 8

2.1 Inclusion in the education context ... 10

2.2 Mexico’s education system (MES) ... 11

2.3 Teacher training education in Mexico ... 133

The TTI curriculum ... 14

The TTI’s teaching practices ... 166

2.4 The teacher training towards equitable and inclusive education... 168

2.5 Educational policies in Mexico ... 188

2.6 A comparison of rural and urban schools in Mexico ... 211

2.7 Why does equity and inclusion matter in Mexico’s education system?... 255

Summary ... 288

3 The Education 2030 framework for action ... 299

3.1 The Sustainable development goal 4 ... 299

3.2 Structure of the framework ... 311

Summary ... 36

4 Methodology ... 377

4.1 The Research design ... 37

4.2 Fieldwork ... 38

4.3 Data Collection Methods ... 38

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4.4 The research sites... 400

4.5 Sampling procedure ... 433

4.6 The participants ... 444

4.7 Data analysis procedure ... 454

4.8 Reliability and validity ... 47

4.9 Ethical considerations ... 47

4.10 Delimitations and limitations of the study ... 48

Summary ... 500

5 Findings and discussion ... 511

5.1 Theme 1. The TTI teacher’s capacity to develop the TTI students’ competences ……….………..51

1 5.2 Theme 2. The TTI curricula’s role in promoting an equitable and inclusive approach in education ... 555

5.3 Theme 3. The TTI students and teachers’ response to the diverse socioeconomic contexts in Mexico schools ... 577

5.4 Theme 4. The Teaching practices towards E&I in education ... 655

5.5 Theme 5. The educational policies in Mexico towards lifelong learning opportunities for all ... 67

Summary ... 70

6 Discussion and conclusions ... 71

6.1 Research question 1: Is teacher training equipping teachers to provide equitable and inclusive education in Mexico’s schools? ... 71

6.2 Research question 2: Are the teacher practices designed to prepare teachers for the diverse socioeconomic contexts in Mexico schools? ... 733

6.3 Research question 3: To what extent are educational policies promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all? ... 744

6.4 Delimitations and limitations of the study ... 766

7 Recommendations... 777

References ... 811

Appendixes……….87

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1 Introduction

The world has made strong efforts to promote education since 2000 when the Education for all (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were established. The EFA and MDGs goals were not reached by the 2015 deadline and to continue those efforts, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were stablished as a United Nations (UN) initiative (UNESCO, 2015). According to UNESCO (2015), the SDGs attempt to mobilise efforts to end all forms of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, while ensuring that no child is left behind (UNESCO, 2015). The SDG 4 seeks to ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and to promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ (UNESCO, 2015, p.7) the agenda is planned for the period from 2015 to 2030. UN (2015) states that education is key for many other SDGs to be achieved, since quality education contributes to break the cycle of poverty for many children (UN, 2015).

By using the Education 2030 framework for action as reference, this study will explore how Teacher Training Institutions (TTI) operate in Mexico to prepare quality teachers who can provide equitable and inclusive education. It will also analyse the differences between rural and urban schools; this comparative analysis attempts to provide valuable information of what is done to attend the needs of the vast diverse groups in the country.

As stated in a report by OECD (2013), international and regional conventions have expanded the obligations of state parties to promote equity and inclusion in education. Efforts from the past that focused in making education a human right, achieving universal education by building more schools, hiring more teachers, have been insufficient (UNESCO, 2015). Children from vulnerable groups suffer from multiple difficulties to enrol in schools and to have positive outcomes; those families cannot afford the indirect costs of education, such as transport costs, school materials and uniforms. As UNESCO (2015) states, for many households, the costs of schooling are too expensive. Some children would rather be sent to work and many others who have a disability or have situations of insecurity exclude themselves from the education systems.

Another barrier for the marginalised children is the socio-economic factor, illiterate parents don’t facilitate or promote their children’s education; they normally have low expectations for what education can provide to their families, generation after generation. In addition to this, parents do not have the capabilities to help children with school work at home, such as

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reading and helping with homework. Therefore, assigning quality teachers for the most disadvantaged students can hinder the socioeconomic factors influencing their learning outcomes. On the contrary, ineffective teachers have a devastating impact on student achievement, and consequently the risk of dropping out; teachers are the most significant in- school factor influencing student achievement (OECD, 2012).

1.1 The research problem

Literature review in the field of social development suggests that where there is quality education, there is development. Mexico is a country that suffers extensive poverty, low remunerated employment, and low levels of competitiveness, violence, corruption, economic dependency and social inequalities. There are immense challenges in Mexico’s education system that has permeated for decades; poor educational results that have devastating effects in the development of the society (CONEVAL, 2016). As UNICEF (2013) points out, one of five children in Mexico work to afford education and other personal expenses, moreover, 40% of the children who work do not go to school.

According to the National Institute of Teacher Evaluation -INEE- (2013), inequity in education is the main problem in Mexico’s education system (MES). INEE (2013) points out that education inequity in Mexico is directly related to the rural contexts and the influence of the socio-cultural and economic context in the children’s families. It has been discussed that the problem remains, because of the lack of knowledge, skills and appropriate training of the teachers to address this issue (INEE, 2013). Vulnerable children in Mexico include children in extreme poverty, those with a disability, children living in remote rural areas, working children, children from illiterate parents or poorly educated (INEE, 2013). Furthermore, many of these children have multiple sources of disadvantages that can also include language barriers in indigenous populations, gender inequity or exposure to violence and abuse (INEE, 2013).

The Programme for International Student Assessment 2012 (PISA) yields interesting data about education in Mexico; around 50% of the pupils do not reach the basic level of proficiency in math, reading or sciences (OECD, 2012). In addition, the difference in the index in the quality of the education resources among schools is the highest among the OECD members, showing the highest levels of inequity in the distribution of educational resources in the country (OECD, 2012).

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An important factor affecting the education outcomes is believed to be the allocation of resources. OECD (2014) points out that México spends a considerable percentage of GDP on education, very similar to that of the other member countries, but the expenditure per student is low. The expenditure for primary to tertiary education grew from 4.4% in 2000 to 5.2% in 2012, very similar to the OECD average, but the expenditure per student was one of the lowest among the OECD members; in 2012, Mexico spent USD 2,600 per student when the OECD average was 8,200 (OECD, 2012). The amount of resources invested in education do not always translate into better student outcomes, but the way resources are allocated is important (OECD, 2013). The former suggests the need for Mexico to produce adequate policies to distribute resources for schools in a more equitable way (OECD, 2013)

As described by Connell (2014), there is a lack of training opportunities for many teachers around the world; in developing countries, governmental authorities have difficulties in the allocation of resources. According to Mittler (2010), teachers are expected to develop on their experience and increase their skills in teaching children; nevertheless, they also have the right to expect proper professional development and support.

In the last decade, the Mexican teachers have been the object of hard critique in terms of their performance and students’ outcome. According to the PISA results, less than 1% of students in Mexico are top performers (OECD, 2015). A consequence of the poor results in student’s achievement is the loss of recognition of the teaching profession in Mexico. Many teachers do not commit to their profession, and some are not prepared or motivated to improve. The teacher training institutions are believed to fail in the attempt to produce quality teachers and in the clarity of their internal processes (Martinez, 2002).

The Mexican government has launched an important educational reform on 2012 that attempts to produce and develop skilled teachers through performance evaluations and incentives (Gobierno de la republica, 2015). Part of the reform focuses on strengthening equity and to promote more inclusive education. However, the reform has been questioned by researchers and stakeholders, specifically for the lack of transparency in its implementation and allocation of resources. While policy agenda is in debate, children from disadvantaged groups are still vulnerable within schools. In Mexico, there is a need to produce more quality teachers to ensure students receive the benefits of education.

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1.2 Justification and significance of the study

The selection of this topic is largely influenced by the fact that the researcher studied in a primary school in a rural community in the north of Mexico and personally knows the context and the dynamics of the rural life. In addition, the researcher has a close relationship with stakeholders involved in rural education in Mexico. According to OECD statistics; Mexico is one of the most unequal countries among its members and have an extensive population of children living in rural communities and in poverty (OECD, 2012).

The study may help to alleviate the lack of literature in the relationship between teacher training and the issue of equity and inclusion in education. Although there is an extensive body of literature about equity and inclusion, few studies focus on what is done in TTI to focus on this issue in Mexico. The perceptions of TTI teachers, TTI students and teachers are relevant since this study presents such different angles to gain a greater insight on the teacher education process in TTI, as well as reflecting on their experiences as teaching professionals in the rural and urban classrooms.

1.3 Research questions

To achieve the understanding of the influence of TTI in equipping teachers to be equitable and inclusive and of the educational policies to provide life-long learning opportunities for all, the following questions will be explored:

1. Is teacher training equipping teachers to provide equitable and inclusive education in Mexico’s schools?

2. Are the teaching practices designed to prepare teachers for the diverse socioeconomic contexts in Mexican schools?

3. To what extent are educational policies promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all?

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Definition of terms

Children from disadvantaged groups

According to Mijangos et al. (2005), disadvantaged groups are a manifestation of the socioeconomic phenomena caused by the lack of capacity of the governments to alleviate the needs of society. Considering this rationale, children from disadvantaged groups are those who live in poverty, children with disabilities, children from rural communities, and indigenous children. Children from disadvantaged groups do not have easy access to the essential elements and resources to achieve personal development and to overcome their limitations (Mijangos et a., 2005)

According to Martin (2010), there are many reasons why children do not attend school; high levels of mobility and migration, child labour and exploitation, poverty, gender and disabilities.

There are immense challenges and barriers for children from disadvantaged groups to gain a decent education; sometimes families do not send children to school because of their concerns about safety and security (Martin, 2010). As pointed out by UNESCO (2015), girls and women constitute the majority of out-of-school children and illiterate adults.

Equity in education

“Equity in education means that personal or social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin or family background, are not obstacles to achieving educational potential (fairness) and that that all individuals reach at least a basic minimum level of skills (inclusion)” (OECD, 2012, p.3). Under this scheme, most pupils have the same opportunity to gain high level regardless of their community, capacities, socio-economic circumstances and conditions (OECD, 2012).

As UNESCO (2015) states, equity in education is the means to achieving equality. Equity involves special action taken to reverse the historical and social disadvantages that prevent children from accessing and benefiting from education on equal grounds (UNESCO, 2015). Moreover, equity measures are not fair per se, but its goal is to ensure equality of outcome (UNESCO, 2015).

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Inclusion in education

UNESCO views inclusion as a dynamic approach of responding positively to pupil diversity and to see individual differences not as problems but as opportunities for enriching the learning process (UNESCO, 2005). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action article 2 asserts that regular schools with inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discrimination, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all (UNESCO, 2005).

As Mittler (2000) states, there is a difference between placing children in mainstream school, and to make schools responsive to the needs of all children. Furthermore, inclusion is about helping teachers to take the responsibility for the earning outcomes of all children. Inclusion in education involves ensuring that all pupils can have access to the educational benefits and social opportunities offered by the school (Mittler 2000). According to Mittler (2000), inclusion in education implies a radical reform in the school that regard the curricula, assessment, pedagogy and grouping of pupils. An inclusive school welcomes and celebrates diversity when it comes to gender, race, language, social background, and level of educational achievement or disability (Mittler, 2010). As Mittler (2010) describes, working for inclusive education has become key in the educational policy worldwide, and it’s also one expression of the struggle to achieve universal human rights.

Urban and rural schools

According to OECD (2013), PISA results show that students from urban schools generally perform better than those attending schools in non-urban settings. The children’s performance difference is related to the socio-economic status of students, and it is also associated with some of the characteristics that distinguish urban schools (OECD, 2013). Some of those characteristics include better resources, greater autonomy in the allocation of resources, and an adequate supply of teachers (OECD, 2014). This study refers to urban schools those located in cities with the urban settings and infrastructure, and rural schools as those located in small communities with the proper characteristics of a rural setting with limited access to the dynamics of the urban life.

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To introduce the characteristics of urban and rural schools in Mexico INEE (2013) shows that parents in rural communities are poorly educated. In addition, the number of books, computers and internet in the home of urban children is bigger than the home of the rural children (INEE, 2013). Another characteristic is the experience and education level of the teachers; the most experienced teachers are normally allocated in urban schools and teachers in rural schools tend to change schools constantly (INEE, 2013). In addition, urban schools tend to be better equipped with computers, internet, school materials and better overall school conditions than rural schools (INEE, 2013).

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Structure of the thesis

This dissertation is comprised of seven chapters; the current chapter introduces the subject of the study, the reason and justification to explore the subject, an analysis of the research problem, the research questions, as well as a definition of relevant terms. Chapter two summarises the review of the significant sources of information in the subject of equity, inclusion, educational policies and teacher education and introduces an overview of MES. Furthermore, a comparison of rural and urban schools will be discussed. Chapter three presents the analytical framework for this study; the Education 2030 framework will be explored and the SDG4 targets will be discussed. Chapter four explains the methodology used in the study, it also provides the justifications of the research methods, data collection and analysis methods. Chapter five describe the findings obtained from the data; chapter six presents the discussion and conclusions. Lastly, chapter seven provides the authors’ recommendations.

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2 Literature review

This chapter introduces the concepts of equity and inclusion in education, later, the MES will be presented. The teacher training in Mexico will be explored, as well as the influence of TTI towards equitable and inclusive education. Relevant educational policies will also be explored.

Literature will assist the comparison of rural and an urban school in Mexico. Lastly, the reasons why equity and inclusion are crucial in improving Mexico’s education system will be discussed.

2.1 Equity in the education context

In different parts of the world, equity in education has become a major concern. Educational policies in many countries seek to provide equitable and quality education. NGOs work on producing guidelines, tools, frameworks for reference, studies and recommendations for decision makers. According to Van Den Branden et al. (2011) in the previous centuries, access to education had been exclusively for the privileged groups, while other groups including girls, minorities and even the children of labourers have been excluded from the education systems.

As Duru- Bellat & Mingat (2011) point out, the student body is heterogeneous form an academic point of view pupils should be stimulated to make the most of their capacity, therefore, the effectiveness of an education system can be assessed by evaluating the capability to cope with this diversity.

A clear example of this issue, are the children who from families living in poverty, according to World Bank (2013) an estimated of 767 million people were living under the international poverty line of US$1.90 a day in 2013, for many of this families, educating their children becomes a challenge and expenses are not easy to afford. Many of those children living in deprived conditions, have parents who are usually illiterate, or poorly educated and are poorly equipped to support them with school work, or to promote reading habits or knowledge transmission (World Bank, 2013).

For those children, effectiveness of schools and teachers are key for educational success; this rationale can be explained with Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital. This refers to the collection of symbolic elements such as skills, tastes and credentials that a person obtains by

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being part of a social class (Sullivan, 2002). According to this logic, success in the education system is facilitated by the possession of cultural capital of higher class habitus (higher social status). Lower-class pupils do not in general possess these traits, so the failure of many of these pupils is inevitable (Sullivan 2002). This explains class inequity in educational attainment; as described by Sullivan (2002), the education system presupposes the possession of cultural capital, which few students in fact possess, but others do not, consequently, there is a great deal of inefficiency in 'pedagogic transmission' (i.e. teaching). This is because students simply do not understand what their teachers are trying to get across (Sullivan, 2002)

According to OECD (2012), improving equity and reducing school failure pays off, economic and social cost of school improvement is high, through education individuals gain better employment opportunities that can lead to healthier and prosperous lives, and to contribute to the public economy. Nevertheless, literature in the field of education reveals that educational institutions struggle with children’s diversity and tend to ignore the differences in pupils from disadvantaged groups. They have difficulties adjusting their teaching methods or pedagogies to those who are different, by doing this, institutions increase the risk of failure in educating those pupils.

According to Van Den Branden et al. (2011), accessibility to education began with the battle against poverty, discrimination, sickness and racism. Once the impact of educating these marginalised groups had been recognised; policy documents have been issued at a national and international scale to promote universal access to education, such as the EFA movement, initiated in Dakar 2000 (UNESCO, 2015). Minimising inequity in education becomes crucial for the less developed countries, since education is key to achieve economic growth and development and poverty reduction will not be possible without social stability (UNESCO, 2015). However, as UNESCO (2015) points out, the challenges are immense; moving towards equity in the education systems requires a demanding political commitment. Furthermore, producing the right educational policies and proper allocation of resources appear to be a difficult road for many governments, especially for the less developed countries (UNESCO, 2015).

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2.1 Inclusion in the education context

The rationale for inclusive education is based upon the fundamental human rights, as stated in the article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN, 1948). According to UN (1948), children with or without disabilities have no distinction in this declaration, and they should have the same right to education. In 1994, the UNESCO’s Salamanca statement and framework for action proclaimed that every child has a fundamental right to education, and must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning. It also states that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs (UNESCO, 1994). The Salamanca statement also points out that the education systems and the educational programmes should be designed and implemented to consider the wide diversity of the characteristics and needs of children (UNESCO, 1994).

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was adopted by the General Assembly in United Nations in 2006 (UN, n.d.). The focus of those conferences is summarised in the Article 24 of this convention and emphasises to encourage states to ensure equal access to primary and secondary education, vocational training, adult education and lifelong learning (UN, n.d.). Segregated education is viewed as potentially violating the children’s rights to appropriate inclusive education, and to limit their capacity to benefit from educational opportunities in the future (NCSE, 2010).

As pointed out by NCSE (2010), schools must employ the appropriate materials, techniques and forms of communication according to the diversity of the pupils, and to provide the proper support to those who suffer physical limitations. It also points out that children must receive their education in the most appropriate mode of communication from teachers (NCSE, 2010).

Furthermore, to foster education of students with disabilities, to improve their chances of participation in society and the development of their personality, abilities and creativity (UN, n.d.). According NCSE (2010), the inclusive education movement was focused initially on people with disabilities, but more recently, the concept of inclusion expanded to those who are at risk of marginalisation or exclusion for different reasons (NCSE, 2010).

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2.2 Mexico’s education system (MES)

Basic education in Mexico is free and provided by the state, and as stated in the constitution and in the general education law; all inhabitants in the country must have the same opportunities of access to the education system, and to the opportunity to develop as individuals and society (SEP, n.d). Figure 2.1 presents the structure of the MES.

Figure 2.1. Structure of the MES

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As shown in figure 2.1, the basic education in Mexico starts in pre-primary education (SEP, n.d). Pre-primary education is aimed for children of 3 to 5 years old, primary education for children of 5 to 12 years old, lower secondary education for students of 11 to 14 years old, upper secondary education (baccalaureate) for 15 to 18 years old and lastly, post-secondary and tertiary education and further for those older of 18 years old (SEP, n.d). The basic mandatory schooling in MES consists of 12 years (SEP, n.d). In the early 90’s MES went through many modifications; basic education years of schooling was widened, teacher training curriculum was modified, free text books were improved, and national programs focused on the improvement of the quality and equity were implemented. (Miranda, 2010).

In addition to the basic education, indigenous education is a relevant aspect of the MES.

Indigenous schools, have an adapted curriculum in different languages (SEP, n.d). The “cursos comunitarios” (courses for especial communities) are also comprised in the MES, aimed for the most marginalised populations (SEP, n.d). Lastly, the special education program, specifically aimed to children with special needs (SEP, n.d.). In this program, children are introduced to the general curricula; nevertheless, the incorporation of this children to the regular primary schools depend on specific individual conditions (SEP, n.d.). The parents of children with disabilities can gain guidance and orientation for their children, according to the level of disabilities and special education needs. (SEP, n.d.).

According to OECD (2013), Mexico’s schools, their teachers and leaders are building capacity, but they require support for improvement, structural issues in the education systems have prevailed until recent years. According to OECD (2013), important challenges remain in the selection of teaches and in the quality of the teacher training programmes; in addition, teachers lack a development plan and incentives as a motivational key factor (OECD, 2013). After the most recent educational reform in 2012, initiatives have been implemented for the selection and evaluation of teachers; the focus of the reform is to promote inclusion, teacher evaluation and quality, but there is room for crucial improvements within the system (Gobierno de la Republica, 2015).

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2.3 Teacher training education in Mexico

According to Griffin (1999), teacher education has become a more responsive activity when it comes to the needs of the schools. Griffin (1999) suggests that teachers have been expected to be agents of change, but unfortunately, they don’t always develop the capacities to do so. The challenges in the teaching profession require that teachers obtain specific knowledge, intellectual skills, and professional orientations; however, Griffin (1999) suggests that this represents a challenge.

Teacher education in Mexico has been thorough a sustained expansion; in the beginning of 1900, the efforts of the government was focused on the increase of education centres, especially in elementary education (SEP, n.d.). Once the expansion of the elementary education occurred, the demand for secondary education increased, therefore the need to produce teachers became a priority for education stakeholders in Mexico (SEP, n.d.). The TTI were founded in the mid- 1920s by the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP, n.d.). During that decade, the federal and state governments founded the rural TTI, “escuelas normales rurales”, the main purpose of these institutions, was to produce teachers to assist in the development of the rural communities, especially those with indigenous populations (SEP, n.d.).

By 1934, Mexico’s constitution declared basic elementary education free and obligatory, and in the consequent years, preschool education and secondary education also became mandatory (SEP, n.d.). An important step was taken when teacher education was raised to higher education on 1984, as an attempt to raise the standards and meet the needs of the education system (SEP, n.d.). According to INEE (2015) only 40.4% of the TTI graduates have received the proper preparation exams. Derived from the poor educational results nationwide, teachers’ education has become a policy priority for Mexico in the recent years; key issues include strengthening the process for selecting teachers and assigning them to schools, the balance in their evaluations, the quality of teacher training programmes, the incentives to improve performance and the quality of teaching (Tatto, 1999).

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The TTI curriculum

According to UNESCO (2013), “the curriculum is a way of organizing and sequencing learning experiences with the aim of achieving specified learning outcomes”. It is a guide to how, why and what must be learnt (UNESCO, 2013). In the recent years, policy makers have adapted the TTI curriculum to face the new challenges in Mexico’s society. The current curriculum was implemented in 2011 and is divided in five blocs (SEP, n.d.), as shown in the next figure.

Figure 2.2. The structure of the TTI curricula (adapted by the author)

Teacher practices, courses that gradually involve students in the school life (8 courses)

Optative courses (e.g., art and physical education) (4 courses)

Additional language and information technologies (7 courses)

Preparation for the teaching-learning practice (e.g., math and sciences) (20 courses)

The psychopedagogical bloc, courses that focus on the teaching process (16 courses)

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As shown in the figure 2.2, the TTI curriculum consists of 5 blocks as the core structure. Each block comprises a series of courses. The TTI curriculum is presented in the appendices.

According to SEP (n.d.), the TTI curriculum was designed with the support of teachers and students of TTI across the country. School principals, educational stakeholders, representatives of the teacher’s union named Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educacion (SNTE) and researchers specialised in teacher education were also involved in the design (SEP, n.d).

The participants were called for national meetings, online surveys, visits to TTIs, focus groups and interviews (SEP, n.d.). The TTI curriculum includes 8 semesters, 55 courses, 291 credits, and a final dissertation to obtain the grade (SEP, n.d.). According to SEP (n.d.), the TTI curricula is designed to assist the TTI students to develop a set of competences in the personal and the professional level, that will be required in the teaching profession. Some of the personal competencies include analytical thinking, problem solving skills, decision making, continuous learning, initiative, research skills, teamwork, ethical, communication skills, use of technology, and respect of the diversity, ethnic group and gender (SEP, n.d.).

As SEP (n.d.) points out, the TTI curricula attempts to develop very specific professional competences in the teachers; teachers that are capable to do class planning according to the needs if the social contexts, to build diagnostics and motivates the students. In addition, teachers must be able to adapt the curricula accordingly, to plan and execute integral education and to utilise the diagnostics evaluations and plans accordingly to produce teachers with the ability to use education research to develop professionally, and who knows and respects the principles derived by the educational law and the values of the teaching profession (SEP, n.d.).

Teachers with the knowledge to create positive work environment in the classroom, that develops and promotes the student’s competences (SEP, n.d.). Teachers who promote inclusion, tolerance and acceptation, and who are sensitive to those with learning barriers (SEP, n.d.). It is relevant to point out that there are two courses that aim to promote equity and inclusion (E&I) in the TTI curricula, those are “attention to the diversity” and “educational attention for the inclusion” (SEP, n.d.)

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The TTI’s teaching practices

According to Gordon (2007), TTI students often question how to apply the theories they learn to the problems they will confront in the classrooms; teachers are concerned of the gap between educational theory and the practice of teaching, hence, they see teaching practices as a chance to make that connection possible (Gordon, 2007). The block of teaching practices in Mexico’s TTI is divided into eight courses (semesters) the first seven are a mix of theory and practice (SEP, n.d.).

The courses focus on exploring the different contexts of Mexico’s schools in a gradual manner;

the last course in the eight semesters, involves an intensive participation of the student in one of the schools that the TTI teachers have previously selected (SEP, n.d.). For 16 weeks, students are expected to take full control of the classrooms (SEP, n.d.). According to SEP (n.d.), the last semester attempts to connect the student’s knowledge acquired during the previous seven semesters with classroom intervention. This semester is planned to prepare students to respond to situations and problematics (real and suggested) in the reality of schools (SEP, n.d.). It is expected that the teaching practices allow students to analyse the diversity of contexts, social situation of the communities, learning needs and to relate those to use the appropriate pedagogic and didactic methods (SEP, n.d.).

2.4 The teacher training towards equitable and inclusive education

Literature suggests that the best education systems have the best teachers, and as Connell (2014) states, a school can only ever be as good as its teachers. If we follow that rationale, every country must be working hard to produce as many high-quality teachers as are needed to ensure quality education for all children. The influence of teacher training in education outcome is not a new concept; according to Rennert-Ariev et al., (2005), since the mid-1980s different commissions and national organisations have focused on the reforms of teacher education.

There has been a growing appreciation for the value that provides good teaching in the reproduction of quality outcomes in education (Connell, 2014).

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According to Connell (2014), the quality of a teaching force is dependent on more than just the availability of teacher training; it is also about making sure that the teacher education is effective. It is fundamental to have an appropriate teacher education system, which is not only about teachers who can teach in the traditional sense of transmitting prescribed knowledge to students, but teachers who can help students to learn how to learn, to learn how to construct their own knowledge, and to learn skills to prepare their students for their lives ahead (Connell, 2014). In most parts of the world, programmes of teacher education tend to include four main components; education studies, academic subjects, didactic approaches and teaching practice (Connell, 2014). As Connell (2014) points out, education stakeholders have tried to shift away from theory and towards practice; the importance of practising the teaching profession has become relevant to understand the classroom contexts as well as to explore the real challenges in the schools.

As pointed out by Connell (2014), in the developing world some 75% of teachers in schools are either unqualified or under-qualified; this critically impacts children learning outcomes, especially among the disadvantaged groups. Connell (2014) suggests that the governments are in the need to raise the quality of teacher education, both pre-service and in-service, and to stop the model of teaching the masses and the teacher-centric scheme. Teacher training institutions can work as a vehicle to stop teachers from prescribing education programs, and to produce teachers that rather recognise the individual student differences and to plan the appropriate instruction depending on how far they have reached their learning (Connell, 2014).

As Connell (2014) suggests, it is relevant to produce teachers that instead of focusing on student-discipline and behaviour management, rather focus in student engagement and motivation, to educate vulnerable children. An important factor in producing quality teachers is the TTI curriculum (Connell J, 2014). According to UNESCO (2013), the curriculum for pre- service teacher education, shapes teachers’ attitudes, knowledge and competencies, and influences their subsequent work with their own students. If governments seek to promote equitable and inclusive education, it is vital that teachers learn, experience and practice inclusive approaches to teaching and learning, throughout their professional development (UNESCO, 2013).

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As UNESCO (2013) states, a balance between pre-service and in-service teacher education, can provide an effective mix of initial learning. To build a strong curriculum that can prepare teachers in the subject of inclusive education, education stakeholders must understand the specific challenges in the education system, the characteristics of the students and the contexts of the locations (UNESCO, 2013). As UNESCO (2013) points out, only when the former has been addressed, educational policy makers can produce a tailored syllabus that can fill the gaps in the system.

2.5 Educational policies in Mexico

According to SEP (n.d.), Mexico’s constitution and the general education law recognize the diverse culture, ethnicity and languages in the indigenous students. Policy makers have tried to design and adapt a bilingual curriculum, text books and didactic materials (SEP, n.d.). One of the more relevant attempts to include those groups in the MES, is the creation of the indigenous education program (educacion indigena,) which facilitates access training programs for bilingual teachers who speak the same languages in the children’s communities (SEP, n.d.). As described by the SEP (n.d.), the indigenous population are the most vulnerable group in Mexico.

According to the Consejo Nacional de Poblacion (2015), a committee that supplies statistic data in Mexico (CONAPO); 7 382 785 Mexicans speak an indigenous language; they represent the 6.5% of the total population. Currently, there are over 68 languages with 364 variations spoken throughout the country, Náhuatl and Maya are the most spoken (INEGI, 2016).

Another relevant program that address the disadvantaged populations are the compensatory programs (Programas compensatorios) which are aimed to educate indigenous and migrant children (Juarez, 2015). The creation of the Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE) in 1973, which is the institution in charge to provide primary education to small remote rural communities (Juarez, 2015). For many children, CONAFE is the only mean to have access to primary education; nevertheless, this doesn’t imply that children receive quality education; the teachers in CONAFE, called instructors are secondary education graduates aged 14 to 24 years old who live in these communities (Juarez, 2015).

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As Juarez (2015) points out there is a problem in the supply of education opportunities in these communities; the system hasn’t been able to integrate qualified teachers in the program due to the low remuneration provided. The instructors earn a month salary of approximately $140 USD, which is considerable lower in comparison to teachers in regular schools, they also get scholarships for their own studies as remuneration (Juarez, 2015). According to Juarez (2015), there is a presence of absenteeism of the instructors, but the parents do not complain to the authorities because they think this can provoke that the instructors will never come back.

As SEP (n.d) points out, one of the priorities for education stakeholders in Mexico is the education of the marginalized to break the inequity cycle in Mexico’s schools. As a response to the low educational outcomes of the most disadvantaged a series of programs were created (PARE, PIARE and PAREB) to support the most marginalized schools, including indigenous communities from basic to tertiary education. Those programs are focalized in the poorest locations in Mexico (mostly in the states in the south). Those programs are applied with the support of CONAFE (SEP, n.d.).

Another relevant program The Dignified Schools Programme (Programa Escuelas Dignas, 2013) aims to improve the infrastructure of schools, including the learning environments and adequate furniture and equipment. This program allocates resources and the funding from the federal government and the school community is then responsible for its maintenance. (OECD, 2013). When it comes to cash transfer programmes (Programa de Becas de Media Superior, PROBEMS and Programa Nacional de Becas y Financiamiento, PRONABES), aim to support and retain students with low socioeconomic status in secondary and tertiary education (OECD, 2013)

Telesecundarias was a program that aimed to provide secondary education to remote rural communities. The telesecundaria project (lower secondary school learning with television support) was launched in as a means of extending lower secondary school learning with television support to remote and small communities (Santos del Real & Carvajal, 2001). After its creation in 1968, it remains as a relevant program that reaches students with limited educational opportunities.

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Another relevant initiative is the programme Constructing Yourself (Construye T), the programme encourages students to stay in upper secondary and reduce the risk of social exclusion. Constructing your self includes teacher training, support to prepare a diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses and guidance for students. It has been implemented in almost 33% of schools by the Ministry of Education, assisted by UNICEF, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and UNESCO (OECD, 2013).

The program for digital inclusion and literacy (Programa de Inclusión y Alfabetización Digital) is a program that was created by the federal government and sponsored by the private sector to supply children 5th grade children with electronic devices (Cardenas, n.d). The aim of this project was to incentive the use of IT and access digital contents in schools but also in the children’s homes who don’t have access to computers. Approximately 1 million electronic tablets and 240,000 laptops were supplied from 2013 to 2016 (Cardenas, n.d.). Mexico connected (México Conectado) is a program from the SEP that takes internet access to all the schools nationwide; it aims to provide students and teachers with free efficient internet connection and to incentive the use of IT in education (SCT, n.d.).

Mexico has signed in in the agenda for education 2030 and has actively participated in its implementation. Some of its measurements is the creation of the committee specialized for the sustainable development (Comité Técnico Especializado en Desarrollo Sostenible), giving the federal government and INEGI the responsibility to lead the actions in the agenda 2030 (UN, n.d.) Another step taken was the creation of a development plan to implement the SDGs (UN, n.d.). One of the most recent and ambitious steps taken in the educational policies in Mexico was The Pact for Mexico (2012) and the Reform of the Mexican Constitution (2013). Those consolidated commitments in education and culminated in the creation of a new law that aims to clarify selection, recruitment, training, promotion and evaluation for teachers. (OECD, 2013).

Part of this new constitution reform involved the implementation of an extensive curricular reform in 2012, the Comprehensive Reform of Basic Education (Reforma Integral de la Educación Básica, RIEB) which introduced learning standards focused on competencies to improve student achievement (OECD, 2013). Mexico has also introduced a teacher evaluation system designed to raise teaching quality; as OECD (2013) points out, the system aims for equity and inclusion, and there is growing pluralism of stakeholders involved.

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2.6 A comparison of rural and urban schools in Mexico

According to OECD (2013), an urban advantage in student performance is seen nearly everywhere. Students who go to school in cities of more than 100,000 people perform better in PISA than students who attend schools in villages, rural areas, or towns with up to 100,000 inhabitants (OECD, 2013). This difference in performance represent about 20 PISA score points; what PISA considers the equivalent of half a year of schooling (OECD, 2013). Mexico’s urban populations have access to better opportunities and the levels of poverty are not as high as in the rural areas, where labour options are more limited (OECD, 2013). Urban schools tend to have better conditions and teachers than the rural schools; as a OECD (2013) shows, the majority of OECD member countries, the students attending urban schools get better results than do rural school students.

The differences between rural and urban schools do not apply to all countries in the same way;

the gap in school performance among this group of students is very clear in most OECD countries (OECD, 2013). As OECD (2013) points out, the socio-economic status families in urban populations is part of these results, their parents are better educated and have more interest in their children preparation since their perception of education is positive. In addition, urban schools are bigger, get more funding and generally have greater autonomy in the resources distribution (OECD, 2013).

According to OECD (2017), Mexico faces important economic and social challenges; the expected economy growth might be insufficient to alleviate the manifestations of inequalities in society. As pointed out by CONEVAL (2016), 43.6% of Mexico’s population faces poverty, and 7.5% live in extreme poverty. As pointed out by OECD (2017), there is a need to create policies that lead to the redistribution of opportunities, education, training, and income. México has the second biggest indigenous population in Latin America (UNESCO, 2005). The country holds a vast multicultural diversity; 62 ethnic groups are spread in 24 of the 32 states of the country, and they represent 10% of the national population (UNESCO, 2005). Most members of these ethnic groups speak another language than Spanish and live in rural areas which are inaccessible locations with low social development (UNESCO, 2005).

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This cultural diversity is related to poverty and inequity, important factors that directly impact in education (UNESCO, 2005). Among the disadvantaged groups, the migrant children also have great educational barriers, according to UNICEF (2006), approximately 300,000 children leave their homes every year -normally in the south of Mexico- to emigrate with their families to other regions of the country to find jobs in the agriculture industry, normally in the fields.

Most of the children come from indigenous populations, therefore emigrating to different locations, like Sinaloa represents big changes in their habits, culture and language, that eventually leads them to suspend their studies (UNICEF, 2006)

As stated by OECD (2013), rural regions account for more than 80% of the land in Mexico and are home to up to 37 million people (36% of the Mexican population) and Mexico is one of the countries with a large population living in rural areas among the OECD countries. “The difficulty and costs of providing public services to dispersed localities has implications in the standards of living of the rural population” (OECD, 2007 p. 4) Therefore, less accessible localities face poor levels of infrastructure, education as well as social and health services (OECD, 2013).

In addition to this, MES has been allocating the less experienced teachers to teach in the rural communities; this in consequence, may impact in the learning outcome of many children (INEE, 2013). According to INEE (2013), rural poverty in Mexico highly differs from urban poverty; the rural environment doesn’t provide the same infrastructure and social services that an urban setting does. These differences also apply to the education context; the rural schools have limited access to resources, and the children needs are more specific (INEE, 2013). Table 2.1 shows the percentage of schools (urban, rural and national) and the type of pedagogic materials they have access to in the classrooms.

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Materials Rural Urban National

Dictionaries and books 94.3 89.2 91.2

Maps 93.3 90.8 91.1

Mathematics materials 90.3 81.1 84.9

Didactic games 91.4 75.5 83.5

Computer 25.5 48.8 38.0

Television 18.6 53.0 37.3

Audio-visual material 26.2 43.1 34.9

Movie player 21.7 46.8 34.9

Computer software 17.2 42.5 31.4

Audio-visual equipment 8.0 22.9 16.2

Access to the internet 4.9 17.1 13.1

Table 2.1. - Percentage of schools and the use of pedagogic materials (adapted by the author)

The table 2.2. shows a considerable difference in the access to computers and internet, pupils in rural communities lack access to the benefits of IT in the schools but also in their homes.

Rural Urban National

Children with computer at home 13.30 37.2 33.5 Table 2.2.- Percentage of children who have access to computers at home

As shown in table 2.2, only 13.30% of the rural pupils have a computer at home, and the similar occurs when it comes to access to books. Table 2.3 shows that 20.6% of the children don’t have access to books at home (INEE, 2013)

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Number of books Rural Urban National

Any 20.6 13.7 15.1

Around 10 books 27.7 19.9 21.4

Around 25 books 17.0 15.1 15.2

Around 50 books 14.9 17.7 16.7

Around 100 books 8.8 12.2 11.6

Around 200 books 11 21.4 20.0

Total 100 100 100

Table 2.3. - Percentage of children who have access to books at home and number of books per household (adapted by the author)

Lack of access to computers and books is a recurrent issue in rural settings; INEE (2013) suggests that the schooling level of the parents influence their learning outcomes. According to INEE (2013), children from disadvantaged groups lack cognitive stimulation, such as reading.

As table 2.4 shows, the children’s mothers’ years of schooling are higher in families from urban locations than those in the rural (INEE, 2013).

Level Rural Urban National

Did not go to school 8.4 4.2 5.9

Primary 43.3 18.7 24.2

Secondary 27.6 27.6 25.7

Upper secondary 8.0 14.3 12.5

Bachelor's degree 12.7 35.2 31.7

Total 100 100 100

Table 2.4. - The mother’s years of schooling shown in percentages (adapted by the author)

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As we can see in table 2.4, only 12.7% of the mothers of rural children have obtained a bachelor’s degree. According to INEE (2013), parent’s involvement is crucial to achieve positive learning outcomes from children, but when the parent’s level of schooling is low, the school factor becomes more crucial for those children (INEE, 2013). According to the INEE (2013), the conditions of the primary education in Mexico demonstrate clear manifestations of inequity in rural and urban schools; As INEE (2013) points out, urban schools in México have acceptable conditions, materials, tools and equipment -even though they are not optimal at times- and those fulfil the basic needs of teachers and children.

The buildings and services are acceptable, teacher’s rotation is low, and school’s supervision and maintenance are very frequent (INEE, 2013). The use of technologies in the classroom is developing, especially among urban schools where at least one computer has access to the internet (INEE, 2013). Urban schools normally have a stable staff and the schools provide education supply from 1st grade to 6th grade (INEE, 2013). According to INEE (2013), those who graduate from TTI, are directly assigned to rural schools, therefore, is very common to find unexperienced teachers in rural schools. Moreover, it is believed that teachers, who teach in rural schools, try to change schools as soon as possible, normally to urban schools where life and school conditions are better. (INEE, 2013)

This might affect the teachers’ commitment, motivation and therefore, performance (INEE, 2013). There is also high mobility of teachers in rural schools; teacher’s rotation can affect negatively the students learning processes, especially if they leave during the school period (INEE, 2013). According to UNESCO (2005), even though there have been attempts of the MES to respond to the need the disadvantaged groups, the international tests such as PISA have exposed a constant association between the socioeconomic level of the families and the level of learning in Mexico’s children.

2.7 Why does equity and inclusion matter in Mexico’s education system?

According to Van Den Branden et al. (2011), access to education is generally believed to raise the individual’s chances to build a prosperous life, find a productive job, and move upward the social ladder and to integrate in a globalised society. Education is also believed to contribute to a more peaceful world, by reinforcing the respect for human rights, freedom, tolerance and understanding (World Bank, n.d.). In Mexico, like other countries in the Latin-American

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region, many children face difficulties in achieving economic and social success, normally because of circumstances beyond their control: gender, race, language, location of birth, or their family background (World Bank, n.d.).

The disadvantaged groups need access to equitable and inclusive education to improve their lives in different ways; education is known to have high returns for individuals when it comes to earning. Education is also associated with better health, a higher probability of labour participation, a lower total fertility rate for women, a higher likelihood of participation in associative and civic life, among many other benefits for the individuals and their communities (World Bank, n.d.). As mentioned by World Bank (n.d.), equity and inclusion in education are also essential for shared prosperity and sustainable development. Disparities in education are one of the major drivers of income inequality, both within countries and internationally, those in the bottom 40 percent of a nation’s income distribution are unlikely to be successful in a globalized economy without fulfilling basic education (World Bank, n.d.).

As cited by World Bank (2009, p.21), “99 of every 100 out of school children live in the less developed countries”. Educational disparities have emerged as a key issue in developing countries, and educating the disadvantaged has emerged as a global concern (World Bank, 2002). According to Harber (2014), education has been a key factor in economic development by producing skilled and productive workers for the economy, unfortunately educational opportunities are limited for some of the different groups in society. As described by Harber (2014), there are out of school-factors in developing countries that might affect who goes to school, who drops off and who benefits from schooling.

Mexico faces social and economic inequity; the gap between the rich and the poor is big; the average household net-adjusted disposable income per capita in 2015 was 12 806 USD a year, less than the OECD average of 29 016 USD a year; the top 20% of the population earn nearly fourteen times as much as the bottom 20% (OECD, 2015). The most deprived groups have difficulties to access to basic social needs such as social security, job opportunities, health services and education, this suggest that breaking the poverty cycle is complicated. Equitable and inclusive education matter in Mexico because of the great necessity to improve children’s life through education; according to official statistics from the National Council of the Evaluation of Development Policies, CONEVAL (2016); 53,418,151 Mexicans suffer poverty, they represent 43.6% of the countries’ population, 58% of those who live in rural areas are poor and 77.6% of the indigenous population are poor.

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When it comes to education, the average maximum schooling years in was 8.6 years by 2015 and 9.1 years by 2016, this variation suggest that the efforts to achieve substantial changes have been insufficient (INEGI, 2015). The situation in the country leaves no room for improvisation, the federal and state governments haven’t been able to provide vulnerable groups with opportunities to develop socially and economically. A clear manifestation of the inefficiency of the governmental institutions towards the poor are the limitations in the education system;

incapable to produce accessible educational opportunities for all, to provide appropriate teaching to their realities and in achieving satisfactory learning outcomes, that can allow individuals to break the poverty cycle (INEE, 2013).

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Summary

The literature review has provided an insight to the relevant subjects of this study; equity and inclusion in education in Mexico. It was argued that the inclusive education movement was focused initially on people with disabilities, but more recently, the concept of inclusion expanded to those who are at risk of marginalisation or exclusion for different reasons.

Nevertheless, literature in the field of education revealed, that educational institutions struggle with children’s diversity and tend to ignore the differences in pupils from disadvantaged groups.

MES was presented, as well as the TTIs. The TTI in Mexico are called Escuelas Normales (EN); its curriculum and practices attempt to develop very specific professional competences in the teachers that address the basic education in Mexico. A comparison of rural and urban schools in Mexico were discussed. Evidence displayed in comparative tables suggested the gap between the resources in urban and rural schools and in the pupils’ homes.

This study takes the SDG4 targets and strategies as a guide to interpret the respondent’s perceptions. Using the Education 2030 framework-equity and inclusion as the analytical framework for this research was a natural decision; its basis and recommendations represent valuable measurements in addressing relevant issues present in education in Mexico. The next chapter will present the education 2030 framework for action in detail, as well as the SDG4’s targets and indicative strategies.