Building houses on sand:
Resilience analysis of erosion, sedimentation and coastal management in Msasani bay, Tanzania
MSc Thesis
By Siri Veland, May 2005
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Title picture: Warning sign at the northernmost property at Kunduchi sandspit (photo: Siri Veland)
© Siri Veland, June 2005 [email protected]
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Declaration
I declare that this is my own original work, and the use of all other material is acknowledged.
This thesis has not been submitted to any other University than UMB for any kind of academic degree.
Siri Veland, May 2005
I dedicate this thesis to all my family and friends, who have inspired me and kept me going
Acknowledgements
I first of all wish to thank Ian Bryceson for helping me find this topic and for his very helpful comments and supervision along the way. I am also very thankful to Hannes Potgieter and his
employees at the dive centre in Dar es Salaam for all his help with data collection. Special thanks go to Sware Semesi, my local supervisor and Lulu Kaaya, for translating interviews.
James Toby put me in contact with Jeremiah Daffa and Rose Sallema at TCMP in Dar es Salaam, who provided me very generously with documents from their archives. Lutufoyo Mwamtobe and Michael Mayuni at the Department of Chemistry at UDSM, and Irene Eriksen
Dahl and Tore Krogstad at the Institute of Plant and Environmental Sciences at UMB were very helpful with laboratory analyses. I am very grateful also to Knut Lehre Seip for helpful
comments. Thanks go to Marte, Sissel, Kamilla and Ingjerd for comments on writing. I of course also wish to thank all the MNRSA, DS and DRE students for making our time at Noragric so memorable. Finally I thank my family and friends for all their invaluable help and
support during this work.
Abstract
Msasani bay is experiencing problems with erosion and destructive fishing techniques. Hotels and fishermen continue these detrimental practices, apparently despite knowledge of alternatives. This might be due to confusing, and at times contradictory, scientific advice given since the 1980s. Causes for erosion in Msasani may be a combination of sand extraction from seasonal streams, sand harvesting, decreased vegetation in catchments, removal of beach crest vegetation, construction in the beach zone, eustatic adjustments and sea-level rise.
National research focus is currently shifting emphasis toward assuming sea-level rise to be the causative factor. National adaptive measures to addressing unsustainable resource use include integrated coastal zone management (ICM), where local communities participate in projects on sustainable resource use. This study reviewed the literature and conducted sediment trapping and analysis in the field to attempt to find causes for erosion, and used interviews to explore perceptions on resource management among fishermen and hotel managers.
Resilience analyses were then made of the combined social-ecological system (SES) of Msasani bay including the possibility of a creek breaking through the beach, to changes in national research focus away from local towards global causes for erosion, and to the adoption of ICM projects in the fishing villages. Resilience analyses are made where there is irreducible uncertainty about the future development of system components, and use scenario planning to find possible future trajectories. The concept is illustrated by the adaptive cycle, where an SES’s resilience widens and narrows as it goes cyclically through system growth, conservation, breakdown, and adaptation in response to deliberate or unexpected changes in system components. The analysis used the concepts of latitude, resistance, precariousness and panarchy to arrive at system resilience, though the terms fit ecological components more easily than social ones. Recent historical developments in Msasani were found to mostly correspond to breakdown phases, while some national institutions had moved into adaptive phases. Overall system resilience appeared low. Movement of sand was found to be limited to the shoreline, while fine particles were carried offshore. Rising sea level and eustatic adjustments may be affecting erosion, but more important causes are probably changes in sediment fluxes through sand mining and harvesting. Interviews revealed that mostly new generation fishermen used destructive fishing practices, and were not part of local resource management regimes. The SES is probably not resilient to sudden geomorphic changes in river and beach configuration, while more resilient to shifts in research focus toward sea-level rise since this would place focus on mistaken causative forces. An ICM approach to fishery management might help reconstruct local institutions and limit destructive fishing practices.
INDEX
1 INTRODUCTION ... 1
2 BACKGROUND... 4
2.1 NATURAL RESOURCES... 4
2.2 EROSIVE PROCESSES... 7
2.3 FISHING ACTIVITIES... 11
2.4 COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT... 13
3 METHODOLOGY ... 14
3.1 OBJECTIVES... 14
3.2 METHODS... 14
3.2.1 Measuring sediment movement... 14
3.2.2 Interviews ... 15
3.3 RESILIENCE ANALYSIS AS A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK... 16
3.4 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY... 19
4 RESULTS ... 20
4.1 SEDIMENT MOVEMENT IN MSASANI BAY... 20
4.2 INTERVIEWS... 22
5 RESILIENCE ANALYSIS ... 25
5.1 HISTORICAL DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM... 25
5.1.1 Beach erosion ... 26
5.1.2 Fisheries... 28
5.1.3 Coastal Zone Management... 29
5.2 EXPLORING ACTORS’ VISIONS... 30
5.2.1 Hotel properties in Msasani ... 30
5.2.2 Fishermen in Msasani villages ... 30
5.2.3 National and regional institutions... 31
5.3 EXPLORING FUTURE TRAJECTORIES... 31
5.4 RESILIENCE ANALYSIS... 32
5.4.1 Resilience to geomorphic changes ... 32
5.4.2 Resilience to shifts in research focus... 34
5.4.3 Resilience to community-based participation ... 35
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON RESILIENCE MANAGEMENT IN MSASANI BAY ... 37
7 REFERENCES ... 39
APPENDICES... 44
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: CLIMATIC SEASONS IN THE DAR ES SALAAM AREA ACCORDING TO SWAHILI TERMINOLOGY (BRYCESON
1984)... 5
FIGURE 2: PATTERNS OF FLOW DURING FLOW (LEFT) AND EBB (RIGHT) IN NORTHERN MSASANI BAY AND KUNDUCHI (LWIZA 1987). ... 6
FIGURE 3: GROYNES AT A PROPERTY IN THE SOUTHERN END OF MSASANI BAY (AS POINTED OUT IN THE BOX). THEIR EFFECTIVENESS IS ILLUSTRATED BY THE ACCUMULATION THAT HAS OCCURRED OVER THE BACK OF THE GROYNES SINCE CONSTRUCTION. THE DELTA FORMED AT THE CREEK OUTLET IS CLEARLY VISIBLE (PHOTOS: IAN BRYCESON) ... 10
FIGURE 4: BOATS USED FOR SMALL-SCALE FISHING IN MSASANI BAY (BRYCESON 1985)... 12
FIGURE 5: SOME FISHING METHODS USED IN MSASANI BAY (BRYCESON 1985)... 12
FIGURE 6: MAP SHOWING THE NAMES AND LOCATIONS OF SEDIMENT TRAPS (BLACK DOTS). ... 15
FIGURE 7: THE FOUR BEHAVIOURAL PHASES IN THE ADAPTIVE CYCLE (TAKEN FROM WWW.RESILIENCEALLIANCE.ORG, BASED ON HOLLING AND GUNDERSON (2002)) ... 17
FIGURE 8: SEDIMENTATION RATES FOR 10 LOCATIONS IN MSASANI BAY, SUBSCRIPT 2 INDICATES SECOND SAMPLING PERIOD... 20
FIGURE 9: PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CACO3, ORGANIC MATTER AND MINERALS IN SEDIMENT SAMPLES COLLECTED FOR 17 LOCATIONS IN MSASANI BAY... 21
FIGURE 10: PICTURE SHOWING SAND HARVESTING STRUCTURES IN NORTHERN MSASANI... 23
FIGURE 11: A SELECTION OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MSASANI BAY... 26
FIGURE 12: PICTURE OF THE SHORELINE AT KUNDUCHI. ARROWS INDICATE CORNER AT THE BEGINNING OF THE HOTEL PROPERTIES AND THE AREA WHERE THE RIVER MIGHT BE ENVISIONED TO BREAK THROUGH (PHOTO: IAN BRYCESON). ... 27
1 Introduction
Msasani bay in northern Dar es Salaam is experiencing problems associated with property damage due to beach erosion and coral reef damage due to destructive fishing methods. These problems are linked to resource-use issues at national and global scales and adaptive management responses to remedy the situation are being attempted. The National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) and the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) in collaboration with other institutions have organised research, developed guidelines for management (cf. Dubi and Nyandwi 1999, Nyandwi 2001, Shagude et al. 1993, Whitney et al. 2003) and implemented projects for community participation in resource management through integrated coastal management (ICM) in coastal Tanzania (Bryceson 2000, TCMP 1999, Torell et al. 2002). The resilience conceptual framework is applied in this study to attempt to understand the social-ecological system (SES) in Msasani.
Resilience refers to the ability of combined social-ecological systems to adapt and transform as changes occur through shifts in the natural system and through policy changes (Berkes and Folke 1998).
Resilience can be understood through indicators such as changes in the institutional and economic structure, property rights and distribution of resources between users, and through demographic change (Adger 1997). Changes have been occurring in Msasani, and there is a need to discover ways for the system to change out of its present configuration and thread of change. In this context configuration is defined as the combination of states variables found in ecosystem and social components. Which configuration is desired depends on the nature of resource use and on access, ownership and responsibilities between resource users. This paper investigates the shift in access to and distribution of resources, and in demographics, whereby fishery and beach resources have changed in their economic value and degree of excludability.
The resilience approach is a relatively new concept and there is a growing number of scientific works on the subject (ref. Resilience Alliance website). A background paper for the Johannesburg Conference in 2002 presented the concept of resilience and its importance for appropriate targets to achieve sustainability (Folke et al. 2002). This report states that
“successful ecosystem management requires monitoring and ecological understanding and institutional capacity to respond to environmental feedback and the political will and perception to make such management possible” (pp 45). Resilience analyses are made in the face of irreducible uncertainty, where future developments may be imagined through scenario planning. This study will therefore analyse system resilience to some scenarios based on an outline and comparison of the causes of erosion in Msasani bay, a description of the historical development of fishing and hotel activities, and a depiction of institutional arrangements that have been formed in response to changing environmental factors.
The scale at which causes may be found for erosion problems is important for the approach to management. As there have been some contradicting suggestions to causes for erosion (cf.
Schiller and Bryceson 1978, Griffiths et al. 1987 vs. Rossi and Saint-Ange 1985, Furnas 2003), this study shows the sedimentation characteristics of various locations within the bay through literature review and empirical research. If the erosion is caused by local processes such as sand excavation or removal of vegetation and construction in the beach zone, then the solution lies in changing these local practices. If the cause is sea level rise due to eustatic adjustments, the solutions lies in finding the best ways to sustain economic activities in a highly dynamic system. If erosion is caused by sea level rise due to global warming the source of the problem lies in the industrialised nations, who must be compelled to cut their
emission levels to remedy global problems. A combination of these factors to varying degrees is the most likely case and management should probably acknowledge all of them.
The second issue relates to fishery resources. Three fishing villages are present in Msasani:
Msasani, Kawe and Kunduchi. The bay has been a site for fishing activities through history, and rules exist concerning access to sites for fishing and type of catch. In more recent years, dynamite fishing, seine netting and small mesh sizes have become used in the bay, causing strong decreases in fish stocks and damage to the substrate (Whitney et al. 2003). Interviews with the local population linked these destructive fishing methods to first-generation fishermen who have arrived in search of income, perhaps following the population increase in Dar es Salaam. These practices may be seen as a challenge to existing rules in the area, where the power held by traditionally evolved institutions governing resource use have been challenged. While this study was carried out, fishermen were being hindered from accessing the fishing resources around the islands, due to the enactment of conservation regulations.
The three fishing communities in the bay are further subject to geographical and social marginalisation as high value property developments move into the area.
This paper starts with a presentation of the background of Msasani bay. This includes the local, regional and global processes involved in the ecological components of the system, as well as in the social and institutional components. In the methodology, methods used for data collection on sedimentation and for interviews are presented, followed by an account of the theoretical framework used. A presentation and discussion of results from the empirical studies ensues. This paper applies the resilience framework to the case of Msasani bay in an attempt to understand its processes of change and find management responses that might help the system find and remain in a desirable configuration.
2 Background
2.1 Natural resources
The area’s geological, climatic and hydrological context impacts on the type of resources used and the management needed to ensure their sustainability. This section is a review of literature on the biophysical background of Msasani bay.
Geology
The catchment consists of clay-bound sands and gravels from the Mio-Pliocene age (Griffiths and Lwiza 1987). These are bordered by superficial white-bluff sands, which change into beach ridge sand, sand dunes and beach deposits lining the coast. The southern end of Msasani bay and the area surrounding the Kunduchi estuary consist of lagoonal sands, clays and silts, and salt marshes. Msasani headland has a cliff-line and is made of raised fossil limestone reefs, which also occur recessed along the entire shoreline.
The streams draining into the bay are quite steep before they flow into the Holocene sediments, where the Mbezi and Mlalakuwa rivers have well developed meanders. Though seasonal, the streams deliver large quantities of sand to the beaches if it were not for sand extraction made within their beds. Sediments along the shoreline are mainly of siliceous terrestrial origin, while those of the islands and Msasani headland ar mainly of calcareous marine biological origin (mostly fragments of coral, algae and shells). The Kunduchi estuary is a creek that carries water from contributing streams, though it is strongly influenced by diurnal tides.
Climate
The average rainfall is approximately 1100 mm. The seasons are influenced by the monsoons and the position of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The first inter-monsoon period ("masika") is characterised by weak winds of variable direction from March to May (Fig.1). The ITCZ shifts northward and as it passes there are heavy rains. The southern monsoon ("kusi") is from June to September, when cool southerly winds prevail, and it is the driest time of year. In the second inter-monsoon period ("vuli"), the ITCZ moves southward during October to December so this period again experience have lighter rains. The northern monsoon ("kaskazi") blows from January to March, which is the warmest period; the winds blow from the north-east and bring occasional rain.
Figure 1: Climatic seasons in the Dar es Salaam area according to Swahili terminology (Bryceson 1984)
Hydrology
The South Equatorial Current diverges at the Tanzanian coast and part of it flows northward to feed the East African Coastal Current. Its velocity varies between 0.25 to 2 ms-1 and is stronger during the southwest monsoon, when the winds strengthen its flow. The tidal amplitude is higher than in other parts of the Indian Ocean, with neap and spring tides of 1.1 m and 4.2 m, respectively (Griffiths and Lwiza 1987). During the north-east monsoon, the waves arrive from a mainly northerly direction, while in the south-west monsoon the waves arrive consistently from the south and south-east, strengthening the East African Coastal Current. The direction of sediment transport in the breaker zone follows the wave prior to breaking. The waves break along the shore, and energy is translated into longshore drift and swash oblique to the shore. The strength of the longshore drift increases with the strength of waves or increasing angle of approach. Diurnal movement is directed by the tidal currents, which are stronger at mid-tide due to the sinusoidal nature of tides, and when the tidal amplitude is the greatest (Lwiza 1987).
Inshore currents change direction with the tides (Lwiza 1987). During ebb they follow a southerly direction, and strong currents of up to 4.5 ms-1 occur at the Kunduchi estuary (Fig.2). In the southern cusp of the bay the direction is north-easterly. During flow the current is northerly, while in the southern end it is south-westerly. The bathymetry of the bay is complex, characterised by many submerged reefs and channels.
Figure 2: Patterns of flow during flow (left) and ebb (right) in northern Msasani bay and Kunduchi (Lwiza 1987).
In the north-east monsoon wave energy is concentrated on the area immediately north of Mbezi River as the submerged reefs act as lenses for wave energy (Lwiza 1987). Because of this variation in wave direction Msasani bay experiences periods of accumulation and erosion depending on the seasons, though net annual sediment movement is northward. For both seasons wave height is lowest in the southern end of the bay and increases toward Kunduchi.
The wave height ranges from 0.2 m to 0.4 m and from 0.5 m to 1.5 m in the north-east and south-west monsoons, respectively. The impact of longshore drift is thus stronger in the northern areas. At the outlet of the Kunduchi estuary the waves become choppy and irregular due to influence by tidal currents.
Ecological components
Msasani bay contains sandy beaches, sandy-muddy tidal flats, seagrass beds, sandstone outcrops and coral reefs. Seagrasses are mostly subtidal and extend to depths of about 15 m.
Corals are found fringing the shores around islands and patch reefs, as well as in scattered locations throughout the bay. The sandy-muddy flats occur intertidally below the beaches, near river outlets and at greater depths. Both seagrasses and coral grounds are important
habitats for fish and act as nursery grounds. Msasani has a special configuration where the islands protect the bay from waves, and the many seasonal streams contribute freshwater, terrigenous sediments and nutrients. The bay is quite shallow (<30 m).
2.2 Erosive processes
The Kunduchi sandspit is a highly dynamic geomorphic system. The creek presently cutting through the sandspit had its exit further north some decades ago (Ian Bryceson, pers. comm.), and it seems likely that a new course might be taken in the near future. A study of shoreline change in Msasani using GIS showed the shoreline north of Kunduchi had lost 2.04 ha between 1981 and 2002, while 2.60 ha had been gained to its south (Makota et al. 2004). This process led to the destruction of one hotel and is threatening several other hotels. In 1978 the fishing village at Kunduchi was threatened from erosion as the creek dug into the border of the village, but the situation was quickly remedied by the collective action of the village (Bryceson 1980): the villagers gathered during low tide and dug a new channel that redirected the water and saved their houses (after the fisheries department building had collapsed).
Msasani bay has historically been a dynamic system. Accumulation of beach deposits has been occurring through geological time with intermittent periods of sediment starvation where placer deposits have been formed (Schutler 1997). Until the very recent past, net accumulation of sediments has been occurring in Msasani (Fay 1987). Griffiths et al. (1987) recommended the establishment of a 200 m buffer-zone and this was established in 1990, but then revised to 60 m in 19991 though it has not been respected, as several hotels have since been built within that zone.
Generally, beach morphology can be influenced by local processes where sediment supply may also be influenced by human activities, regional processes due to tectonic plate movements, or global processes of climate change and sea-level rise.
Local processes
The major streams entering Msasani bay have all been sites for sand mining (Griffiths et al.
1987), and is likely that this still occurring. Large quantities of sand have been removed for building materials, and most of the activity has been done illegally or without licence. The sand replenishing the beaches is lost in this process, as the sand from the upper catchment is normally deposited in the stream-bed to compensate. The increased stream power caused
1 This was promulgated under the Town and Country Planning Ordinance, Cap. 378
strong erosion of the deltas from 1967 to 1981, and they have been reworked into parallel sand bars by longshore drift (Griffiths 1987). As the sand is hindered from replenishing the beaches, a net loss is experienced as longshore drift moves beach sand northward. The accelerated erosion causes mobilisation of sediments, which may cause damage to coral reefs through increased sedimentation (UNEP 1998).
A hypothesis by Norman (1985) stated that most of the sediment starvation experienced north of Kunduchi was due to the offshore transportation of sediments from the estuary at Kunduchi, and echo-sounding confirmed this hypothesis according to Griffiths (1987).
Studies find, however, that most sediment movement along coasts is longshore or indeed on- shore (see e.g. Furnas 2003, Parker 1975), such that Norman’s hypothesis is questionable. If sediments were indeed carried offshore at Kunduchi, the north might not be influenced by the removal of sediments from the rivers south of the estuary. However, erosion has been occurring at these properties especially during the northern monsoon (Bryceson and Stoermer 1980, GUTE 1991, Whitney at al. 2003). The TCMP hypothesise that this is due to sea-level rise as a result of global warming (Jeremiah Daffa, per. comm. 2004).
There were suggestions that the erosion in Msasani was caused by dynamite fishing (Rossi and Saint-Ange 1985, Furnas 2003). This activity destroys the reef structure, perhaps allowing greater wave energy to reach the shore. Such activities should then also contribute sediments to the shoreline as the reef is broken: however, this process is highly unlikely to be significant.
Dubi and Nyandwi (1999) reviewed the successes and failures of Tanzanian coastal management. They speculate that the erosion problems were perhaps caused ultimately by an increase in the severity of the coastal weather. Their view to the cause of the problems differs slightly from the others. The authors mention that the loss of property to erosion problems in the Kunduchi area started in 1967 after a storm surge, which caused destruction to several properties in the area. They report that erosion problems were experienced in locations along the entire Tanzanian coastline and could not find another unifying cause than the increase in extreme weather.
There is thus some confusion as to the causes of erosion in the bay, and this might point to some reasons for the relative ineffectiveness of protection measures used by property managers.
Regional and global processes
Regional and global processes may be expected to cause changes in sea level due to oceanic and atmospheric temperature changes, narrowing ocean basins and vertical displacements.
Together with local practices that influence sediment budgets, these will impact on the recession or accretion of the coastline.
Eustatic adjustments
Changes in coastline elevation can occur in relation to tectonic movements. The Rift Valley system and the Mozambique fault run west of the Tanzanian coast, and have influenced sea- levels by causing vertical displacements at least since the Miocene (Somi 1993 in Schutler 1997). Strong variations in sea level due to eustatic adjustments have therefore been experienced in Tanzania through geological time. The uplift is visible in the numerous limestone terraces along the Tanzanian coast, with vertical displacements of 3-100 m between Dar es Salaam and the Kenyan border. Sea level has been rising until the Holocene but has levelled of in the Recent.
Global warming
Adjustments in global sea levels amount to 1 mm/year for the last 100 years (IPCC 2001).
Rising sea-levels may be expected to influence coastal erosion as water level increases and encroaches upon land. The TCMP gives strong consideration of this factor in their State of Knowledge Report (Ngusaru 2000), where they give estimations for future shoreline recession from this process. They refer to Bruun’s rule where a 1 m sea-level rise would lead to a 100 m retreat of the shoreline (Bruun 1962). They say a 1-10 cm/year rise in sea level would correspond to a 1-15 m/year recession of the shoreline, respectively. An increase of 1 cm/year is only likely if the IPCC’s worst predictions of 1 m in 100 years come true (IPCC 2001), such that these findings have very limited value. Furthermore, Bruun’s predictions have limited credibility. As Day (2004) shows, Bruun’s predictions were based on the assumption that the beach does not experience any longshore drift. He thus did not account for the short- term movement of sand through longshore movement. Such movement is in fact stronger than the long-term changes in sea-level.
Coastal protection measures
There are various approaches used in constructing beach protective structures, and this paper concerns itself with those used, or proposed used in Msasani.
Groynes
There have been numerous recommendations for groyne construction in Msasani. Bryceson and Stoermer (1980) recommended permeable groynes with dimensions of 2 m at the base and 1.5 m height, constructed of coralline limestone blocks not measuring less than 60 cm, no less than 50 m spacing and 30 m length. These structures have worked quite well in the northern properties, although many of them were dimensioned considerably larger. In the southern areas, however, there has been some confusion as to their functionality. Hemed’s (1987) conclusions were that the groynes at Africana Hotel were working quite well, and had observed some accumulation of sand, though this hotel shut down in the mid 1990s due to severe erosion problems. Rossi and Saint-Ange (1985) were of the opinion that it was useless to construct groynes on the coastline since they would not work under the sediment transport system in the bay, and claimed sand was derived from erosion of the reefs. The sand is of terrigenous origin, however. Lwiza (1987) observed the longshore currents in the southern end of the bay to be too weak to be able to transport much sediment such that groynes to prevent longshore drift would be useless there. However, groynes placed in front of a house in the southern end have proven very effective (Fig.3).
Figure 3: Groynes in the southern end of Msasani bay (see arrow). Their effectiveness is illustrated by the accumulation that has occurred over the back of the groynes since construction (photos: Ian Bryceson)
Sea walls
Sea walls have been constructed at some properties, notably those with little or no beach front. These walls are impermeable, made of coral rock and rubble, and may be seen as a “last protection” of the properties where the beach has already been severely eroded. They are laid to protect properties that lie close to the water but above sea level. One is at the northernmost property before the site of the old Africana hotel, and is in the state of collapse as the beach erosion moves southward. There is no literature on the use and effectiveness of sea walls in Msasani.
Textile tubes
Textile tubes were placed parallel to the shoreline at Africana hotel in the 1980s. These tubes were intended to limit wave energy reaching the shore in order to hinder erosive processes.
Rossi and Saint-Ange (1985) commented that the textile tubes were of no use. The hotel was closed in the early 1990s due to severe erosion problems, and as such the tubes were of no value, though they were put in at high expense.
Other structures
While the structures presented above are ones frequently used in coastal protection, other measures were may be observed that are not based on empirical studies of effectiveness, but made in an ad hoc manner by managers. One property had constructed a maze of sea walls and groynes in a cubical pattern. Another had placed small rocks in cubical formation on the beach in order to limit sand movement. Scour marks surrounding the rocks were clearly visible, however, which suggests they probably have opposite effects to those intended.
2.3 Fishing activities
Fishing communities have been present in Msasani bay for many centuries (Bryceson 1985, 2004). They have seen the consecutive coming of Arab traders, the German, French and finally British colonialists until liberation in 1961. They have formed institutions governing catches and zoning (cf. Berkes and Folke 1998, Francis and Bryceson 2001). In more recent years entrepreneurs have begun commercial sale to other parts of town and hire fishermen to catch for them, to a large extent first-generation fishermen who arrive in search of quick income.
Coastal resources are managed as commons with the community as governing body (Francis and Bryceson 2001). Older generation fishermen engage in traditional fishing methods, which include the use of wooden boats of varying size and nets, traps, spears and lines for catch. The
vessels used varied from middle-sized mashua and dau that would fit several people, to the smaller boats carved from mango tree, ngalawa and mtumbwi for one or two people, to fibre- glass boats and the use of old surf-boards (Fig.4).
Figure 4: Boats used for small-scale fishing in Msasani bay (Bryceson 1985)
Traditional fishing methods and equipment include the use of traps such as dema where bait such as seagrass, pieces of octopus or crabs (without claws) are placed within to attract fish, which can then not escape (Fig.5). Juya (seine nets) are dragged along the bottom near the shoreline, while mshipi is the use of hand line. Harpoons are also used. Another method involves the construction of lines of sticks placed at low tide, or uzio: as the tide rises and falls, the fish will become trapped behind the structure (Bryceson 1985).
Figure 5: Some fishing methods used in Msasani bay (Bryceson 1985)
2.4 Coastal Zone Management
Integrated coastal management (ICM) forms a framework around efforts in community-based management structures for natural resources. “Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) is a continuous and dynamic process that unites government and the community, science and management and sectoral and public interest in preparing and implementing an integrated plan for the protection and development of coastal ecosystems and resources” (MNRT 2002).
Such programmes are found in Tanzania at the regional and national levels relating to conservation and sustainability of natural resources. While Msasani and other areas along the coast are experiencing problems with poverty and unsustainable resource use, community participation programmes in other areas are currently in operation, and there are indications of positive change. The Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (KICAMP), the Mafia Island Marine Park, and projects in Bagamoyo, Tanga and Pangani, are some community-based initiatives that aim to involve local communities in sustainable harvest of marine resources. Cooperation between the Institute of Marine Science in Dar es Salaam, TCMP, NEMC, and foreign research institutions and donors is in the process of supporting management institutions to arrive at beneficial and resilient social-ecological configurations.
Important organisations and offices within coastal zone management in Tanzania include NEMC, Ministry of Environment (MoE), Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), the Institute of Marine Sciences, Department of Zoology, Department of Botany and the Department of Geology at the University of Dar es Salaam, and TCMP, while regional organisations such as Western Indian Ocean Marine Sciences Association (WIOMSA), and internationally UNDP, WWF, Sida/ SAREC, University of Rhode Island, USAID and others have provided funding and expertise.
3 Methodology
3.1 Objectives
There were three objectives to this study:
• Identify the causes of erosion in the bay
• Find views on past, present and future management among main actors in Msasani bay
• Perform a resilience analysis of Msasani bay in relation to geomorphic changes, policy change and institutional adaptations in fishing villages
3.2 Methods
This study examined the linked ecological and social system of Msasani bay. Both quantitative and qualitative data collection was made. Measurement of sediment movement in the marine environment in Msasani was made in relation to beach erosion. In order to investigate the managerial dimension of erosion, interviews were made with the main actors of the system.
3.2.1 Measuring sediment movement
The first objective of this study was to measure sediment movement in the bay in order to reveal some sedimentary processes. Sediment traps were placed in 19 locations within and outside the bay. They were placed at close and remote locations relative to the shore and islands, and relative to the direction of tidal currents moving in and out of Kunduchi semi- lagoon (see Fig.6 for locations). The substrates were of sand, seagrasses, corals and rubble.
They were placed at approximately 10 m depth in order to stay within the influence of tidal currents. Each trap contained three cylindrical tubes measuring 15x6 cm placed in a tray at 10 cm intervals. The traps collected for 14 days in order to incorporate variations over the tidal cycle. The substrate was mapped for each location in three 0.5x0.5 m quadrats. Samples were collected in early October and late November, marginally within the southern and northern monsoons, respectively. The first period was characterised by strong currents, low visibility and high winds. The second sampling period had weaker currents, higher visibility and weaker winds, with higher rainfall.
Figure 6: Map showing the names and locations of sediment traps (black dots).
A microscope was used to examine the samples to find abundance of quartz and calcareous material. After examination samples were drained into filters in a drying rack using fresh water to dissolve salt. The samples were then dried in an oven at 110 ûC overnight and weighed. To find the proportion of organic matter, carbonates and minerals the samples were first incinerated at 475 ûC for removal of organic content and reweighed. They were then rinsed with 2 M HCl to remove all the calcium carbonate and weighed again.
3.2.2 Interviews
The second objective in this study was to find views on present, past and future management of Msasani bay. Semi-structured interviews were made with 30 fishermen in the locality (women did not engage in the fishing activities). Semi structured interviews have a set list of questions where the interviewee is allowed to elaborate and the order of questions may be changed to suit the situation (Bryman 2001). The interviews were made at the location where they were working, such that the interview did not interfere greatly with their tasks. Questions involved their length of residence in the village, the type of fishing they engaged in, which methods they used, their visions for the future, as well as how powerful they felt in relation to influencing the development of the area, and who they considered most powerful.
Unstructured interviews were made with the managers and owners of four hotels. Such interviews have a set of open questions around which the interviewer and interviewee discuss (Bryman 2001). They were also asked about their future visions, and their feeling of power to influence the development, and who they considered most powerful, in order to compare results with those of fishermen. They were further asked who had ownership of the hotel, which measures they had adapted to abate problems, and who had the responsibility for managing the property.
Discussions were held with members of the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) in their offices in Dar es Salaam, concerning their view toward the sources and solutions to problems in Msasani bay in particular and Tanzania in general. They generously supplied literature from their archives on Msasani and Tanzania.
3.3 Resilience analysis as a theoretical framework
The third objective of this paper was to perform a resilience analysis of the social-ecological system of Msasani bay in relation to future policy changes, natural events and institutional change. Resilience in this paper is according to the definition by Holling of ecological resilience, as opposed to engineering resilience (1996). Ecological resilience emphasises the system’s capacity to reorganise and adapt following changes that disturb the relation between components within the ecological and social compartments, whereas engineering resilience refers to the ability to return to an equilibrium steady-state (Resilience Alliance 2005), and the latter thus refers to resistance rather than resilience. Changes in system components are therefore seen not as a hindrance to an imagined equilibrium, but as an expected part of system evolution to which we can adapt. Adger (1997) suggests that resilience can be understood through indicators such as changes in the institutional and economic structure, property rights and distribution of resources between users and through demographic change.
These factors influence the equity and efficiency in the use of resources. Where these are ensured there is higher likelihood of cooperation between actors, such that the capacity to learn and adapt is stronger.
Adaptive management is key to management of resilient systems. This means institutional learning that is in response to, and induced by, present and anticipated changes in the social and ecological components of the system (Resilience Alliance 2005). The adaptive cycle is illustrative of the progress a resilient system will go through as it is influenced by such changes. The adaptive cycle is a conceptual illustration of system progression as changes are induced by the connectedness of system components, and in the potential accumulated in
knowledge or ecosystem components. The progression has been conceptualised into four phases of growth (r), conservation (K), release (Ω) and reorganisation (α) (Gundersen and Holling 2002) (Fig.7). The capacity of the system to remain in its original configuration2 as it progresses through these phases is termed resilience. Applied to social-ecological systems, these phases correspond to a breakdown and creation of management structures and ecological configurations. The managerial components adapt through the increased potential accumulated through investment in research and adaptive institutions, and the connectedness between institutions. The ecological components of the system are able to adapt through a change in configuration to rely on the existence of previously “redundant”3 species and processes. The potential can here be viewed as the diversity and richness of “redundant”
species in the ecosystem, while connectedness is the degree of influence each component has to the ecosystem as a whole. Diversity within both managerial and ecological components are therefore of high importance. As one component breaks down in the face of change, other components can be relied on to allow for adaptation, and a new cycle can be initiated.
Figure 7: The four behavioural phases in the adaptive cycle (taken from www.resiliencealliance.org, based on Holling and Gunderson (2002))
2 “Configuration” was in this study found more appropriate than “state”. A system state refers to a specific condition at a point in time, while configuration links multiple states through time (Walker et al.2003).
3 The word “redundant” is frequently used in the resilience literature but we consider it to be a misnomer. A
“redundant” species would be eliminated by natural selection (Darwin 1859). We suggest that a better term might be “functionally similar” species (Ian Bryceson, pers. comm.).
Resilience can be seen as the third dimension of the adaptive cycle. Resilience is high in the reorganisational and growth phases where learning and adaptation are keys. It shrinks as the system moves into the conservation phase where the system becomes more “brittle” as structures are inherited, making the system more precarious to change. Resilience is lowest in the release phase, where sudden and perhaps irreversible change may occur. Resilience again increases as the system moves into a new cycle. The exit indicated in the adaptive phase in the figure above is an illustration of how a system may exit from its present configuration, perhaps into a less desired one (Resilience Alliance 2005).
Resilience is not always beneficial. As expressed by Walker et al. (2003): “Resilience is not necessarily desirable. System configurations that decrease social welfare, such as polluted water supplies or dictatorships, can be highly resistant to change (…). Building resilience of a desired system configuration requires enhancing the structures and processes (social, ecological, economic) that enable it to reorganize following a disturbance. It also requires reducing those that tend to undermine it” (Walker et al. 2003, pp. 7). Where an SES is in an undesired configuration, the goal of resilience management is to decrease system resilience through a breakdown in management structures or ecological configurations to induce change into a more desirable system configuration.
The resilience approach builds on four key concepts: the latitude, resistance, precariousness and panarchy of the social-ecological system (Resilience Alliance 2005). Latitude refers to the maximum amount of change a system can go through before it reaches a threshold after which it must change its configuration (movement into Ω phase). Resistance relates to how able the system is to change, or what it would take to change it. Precariousness is how close the system is to change, or how close it is to a threshold. Panarchy relates the concept of resilience to sub-ordinate or over-arching systems of thought or ecological processes such as climate change and international conventions, and how this might influence system evolution.
These concepts seem to fit ecological resilience issues more easily than those of social resilience, but they are still used.
The goal of resilience management is thus to arrive at conditions where the resilience of a desired system configuration is strengthened. Which is the desired configuration depends on actor interests and the access each has to resources. Where the desired configuration is there at present, the framework helps arrive at ways to keep that social-ecological system resilient through scenario planning. Where the present configuration is undesirable, the resilience
approach helps arrival at possible perturbations that may be induced to decrease resilience and movement into a new system configuration (Resilience Alliance 2004).
3.4 Limitations to the study
There exists relatively little published literature on the history of fishing and coastal processes in Msasani and Tanzania. The references used in this study are therefore based mostly on grey literature. Some information may therefore be incomplete or inaccurate.
The interviews were only made with the younger segment of the fishing populations. The older generation fishers are part of a management system that may have been in operation for generations and would thus be expected to have different views to managerial problems and future developments.
In the first period of sediment trapping, collection time varied due to traps being lost or stolen, such that the whole tidal cycle was not covered for some samples. This might influence results by giving too low readings. Due to time constraints data collection was only carried out in two series over three months. It would be desirable to carry out sampling throughout the seasons and over several years in order to find the true sedimentation characteristics of the area and its relation to the substrate.
4 Results
4.1 Sediment movement in Msasani bay
Sedimentation rates were lower near the shoreline and river outlets than at the reefs or near the islands (Fig.8). The first sampling period showed higher readings and higher variation.
Visibility was relatively low for all sites and ranged from 30 cm near the shoreline to 10 m at the reefs in the first sampling period, and increased to range from 30 cm near the shore to 20 m on the reefs in the second period. The seagrass sites varied in visibility between these two extremes. On some days the water near the shoreline was oblique with a slight red colour, usually following strong rain, and was observed together with drainage marks with the same colour on the beach front.
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
F. Yasini 2 F. Mkadya W F. Mkadya W 2 F. Mkadya E F. Mkadya E 2 Mbudya Mbudya 2 Pangavini Pangavini 2 Bongoyo N Bongoyo N 2 Bongoyo 2 Centre Bay Centre Bay 2 Slipway Kunduchi Kunduchi 2
Reef Island Near-shore
sedimentation rate (g/cm2/day)
Figure 8: Sedimentation rates for 10 locations in Msasani bay, subscript 2 indicates second sampling period.
Microscopic examination revealed that all the samples except the Kunduchi site were mainly made up of shell and coral fragments as well as foraminifera and spines from sea urchins.
Most samples contained mainly calcareous sediments, and a small fraction organic matter, with a varying content of mineral material (Fig.9). The samples from near-shore environments had a light grey colour after treatment with hydrochloric acid, while those from reefs and seagrasses had a light to dark grey or black colour. The remaining material in most samples was of fine, powdery composition, apart from the Kunduchi samples, which were composed
of silicious sand. The composition of the minerals found in other sites is unknown but was found to be inorganic, and was found in higher concentrations closer to the coast.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
F. Yasini 2 Pangavini F. Mkadya E Mbudya 2 Mbudya Bongoyo N Bongoyo N 2 F. Mkadya W 2 Bongoyo S 2 F. Mkadya W F. Mkadya E 2 Slipw ay Pangavini 2 Centre Bay Centre Bay 2 Kunduchi Kunduchi 2
Terrigenous minerals CaCO3
Organic matter
Figure 9: Percentage composition of CaCO3, organic matter and minerals in sediment samples collected for 17 locations in Msasani bay.
Low sedimentation rates in the near-shore environments might be due to more localised movement of particles, probably through saltation and creep. The sediment traps did not measure such movements as they stood 15 cm above the substrate. The lighter weight and hence relative ease of suspending calcareous material might thus explain the higher sedimentation rates found in the reef and island environments.
While the silicious and unidentified mineral materials might be terrigenous material carried offshore, the larger particles that affect beach morphology remain in close proximity to the shoreline. The shoreline and reef or island areas are therefore of two different sedimentological regimes. The erosion problems are therefore likely to result from changes in sediment supply on the beaches and hindrance of longshore drift by constructions, rather than the offshore transportation suggested by Norman (1985).
The silicious and unidentified material might be silt and clay particles carried offshore in suspension, and their concentration may explain the low visibility. The turbid waters near the shoreline on certain days might be explained by high concentrations of suspended particles resulting from erosion of added materials on the beachfront. To ascertain whether this sedimentation is affecting coral growth would require further focused studies.
4.2 Interviews Hotels
The hotel owners were aware of problems concerning each property, the processes involved and the effects that their individual actions may have on properties to their north due to longshore drift. They expressed some hopelessness as to the advice given by researchers through the years, since they had given a variety of causes and solutions for the problems, with varying correctness.
Interviews and observations showed that all hotels had invested in beach protection measures.
The manager of one hotel just south of Kunduchi had developed sand harvesting structures and helped neighbouring properties with similar constructions (Fig.10). Together with the adding of extra materials, he had gained 50m of beach due to this technology, and had since made constructions on the reclaimed land. Harvesting this amount of sand has caused considerable problems to northern neighbours. His are the only harvesting structures in the area. The other properties had built a combination of seawalls and groynes that did not have the same effect. This manager had instructed his northern neighbour to construct similar structures, but he had at that time made a sea wall and a maze of groynes parallel and perpendicular to the shoreline. Harvesting structures would have little effect at this property, however, as the northward transportation of sand is hindered by the harvesting structures to the south.
The managers were aware that the erosion will creep southward as longshore drift digs out sand from the northern areas to compensate for sediment starvation. The effects of the constructions can be clearly seen in aerial photographs (see Fig. comparison), where the coastline digs in sharply to the north of the hotel properties. They did not seem aware of the threat of the creek behind Kunduchi breaking through the sand bar and the massive change in morphology this would entail.
Figure 10: Picture showing sand harvesting structures in northern Msasani
Fishermen
The first-generation fishermen interviewed had arrived in Msasani during the last 10 years.
All said that they owned land, though some lived some distance from the fishing villages.
They revealed further that houses on the border of the fishing village in the southern end of Msasani were being expropriated, particularly if their houses were of relatively good construction (e.g. new wood or corrugated iron) as this revealed a better income. High value property developments had followed such expropriation. Moving into the fishing villages was thus difficult.
Interviews revealed they had some knowledge of good fishing practices. However, with regard to net sizes and dynamite fishing they indicated that they were forced to engage in such activities since other income sources were not available. They did not hide their activity, but showed some of their equipment, such as 1½ inch mesh-sized nets. They gave reasons for using unsustainable fishing practices: one was that they are hired by traders who provide them with dynamite and seine nets and who sell the catch for them in distant markets. The other referred mostly to net size and was due to the fact that larger sized fish are being caught by other fishermen such that they need to resort to smaller sizes to gain any catch.
Interviews revealed that the bay is divided into zones where fishing can be carried out by an identified set of actors. Conversations revealed that this regime as operating among older generation fishermen. Among the new segment of fishermen, with whom interviews were
conducted, these borders were only observed by a few, and some were not aware of such zoning at all. They grouped themselves according to the type of fishing they engaged in, which would be identified by the type of equipment they used: spear for octopi and squid;
drag nets or line nets; fishing line; or traps. The newly arrived fishermen have little or no experience of fishing or managing marine resources prior to starting their activities.
5 Resilience analysis
This section analyses the social-ecological system of Msasani bay within the resilience model, and follows five steps as suggested by Walker et al. (2003). It first analyses the system components through an historical profile of the system based on the adaptive cycle (Gunderson and Holling 2002). It then gives an analysis of the future visions actors gave in interviews, to find some indicators of future developments. The third step then builds some scenarios where estimated system response to changing policies, institutions and natural events is based on the above presentation. Fourthly, resilience of the system is estimated.
Fifth, recommendations for resilience management are suggested.
5.1 Historical description of system
Important natural resources in this area includes beaches, sand, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and other aquatic life, while the ocean view itself is an aesthetic asset for hotels and restaurants. In Msasani, the beaches and sand are resources to hotel owners as tourist attractions, and to fishermen as landing sites and collection areas. The seagrass beds and corals reefs are resources for the fishermen as fishing grounds, and to hotels as tourist attractions.
The present role and configuration of actors must be understood in an historical light. It is useful to consider these developments in light of the adaptive cycle as modified by Walker et al. (2003). Each development in the area is placed corresponding to a phase in the cycle, and drivers of change such as changes in institutions and economy, property rights, access to resources and demographic change are identified. A history of beach erosion issues is addressed first, followed secondly by fishery resources, and thirdly a view is given to the development of global, regional and local programmes. The figure below is a summary of events that have shaped Msasani’s history (Fig.11).
Figure 11: A selection of historical developments in the development of Msasani Bay
5.1.1 Beach erosion
The system might be viewed historically as having had a different configuration earlier in both ecological and social aspects, since it contained a different set of actors and users of ecosystem services. It may therefore be suggested that the system was going through adaptive cycles that maintained a similar configuration (α-Ω). A new configuration was encountered as hotel developments came into the area, and as beach erosion problems arose around the 1970s (Ω). Sand mining the rivers draining into Msasani started as an economic activity for construction to support a growing population. This is documented to have caused erosion along the bay (Bryceson 1980, Griffiths 1987, GUTE 1991). Coupled with a decrease in
vegetation and increase in hard surfaces in the catchments, this has intensified the force of the streams and limited the sand replenishment to the beaches (Ω). Sand mining has now been prohibited as it caused destabilisation of the river courses and beaches (r), though this regulation is not being respected.
Groynes and sea walls have been constructed in an ad hoc manner to retain sand and protect properties (α). These structures have in some cases proven highly efficient in a localised sense (r), or had no effect in others, while often exacerbating damage on nearby properties due to sediment starvation down-drift (Ω), such that there has been no escape from the release phase.
The beach itself is no longer aesthetically pleasing enough for it to be an attraction to visitors (personal communication with hotel visitors, GUTE 1991) (Ω). The situation has been driven to advantage by one property, however, that has modified groynes such that property has gained 50m of beach. This might be seen as a growth phase (r), but the practice has caused damage to properties to the north as sand is hindered from replenishing beaches, effectively causing erosion there (Ω). This hotel constructed a sea wall (α), but it is presently collapsing at the northern end (entering Ω). The Africana hotel was situated to the north of this property again, on the Kunduchi sand spit until the mid 1990s when erosion caused the hotel to close as several buildings collapsed (Ω). That hotel constructed groynes and parallel sea walls (r) but they only served to exacerbate the problems (Ω). The effects of this practice can be seen in aerial photographs, where a sharp corner demarcates the start of hotel properties (Fig.12).
Figure 12: Picture of the shoreline at Kunduchi. Arrows indicate corner at the beginning of the hotel properties and the area where the river might be envisioned to break through (photo: Ian Bryceson).
As an adaptive response to the erosion problems, the National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) set up the Beach Erosion Monitoring Committee (BEMC) in order to report on the erosion along Kunduchi beach. A comprehensive report was written in 1987 that included baseline studies of the geology, climate and hydrology of the area (α) (Griffiths et al.
1987). The report gave concrete advice for laws to be set for the construction of structures in the beach zone (α). Other publications made over the years have covered various aspects of the hydrology and geology of the area, together with management suggestions (a selection of these include: Cilek 1976, who described the beach deposits in the region; Kent 1971 wrote on regional geology, while Schiller and Bryceson 1980, Rossi and Saint-Ange 1986, GUTE 1991, Shagude et al. 1993, Dubi and Nyandwi 1999 all looked at various aspects of the erosion problems). While recommendations made by Shiller and Bryceson (1980) still prove relevant (α), and e.g. Griffiths et al. (1987) and Dubi and Nyandwi (1999) gave good recommendations for laws and policies (α), other publications with confusing views on causes and solutions have complicated the situation, and caused somewhat decreased trust to scientific advice (Ω), which distances actors.
5.1.2 Fisheries
Fishing has been and still is an important activity in Dar es Salaam, and fishing villages have been present in Msasani for centuries. The system configuration from historical times differs from that found presently. Though traditional institutional management rules have most likely been developed through people-environment interactions, and fishery resources were maintained (K) (Berkes and Folke 1998, Francis and Bryceson 2001). Population growth started increasing rapidly in the 1960s until present, and the fishing villages in Msasani have seen a demographic change whereby young men have immigrated from other parts of the city.
Migration can be viewed as a positive or negative development (Folke et al. 2002), though in the Msasani fishing villages this has effectively caused traditional management rules to disintegrate, and to allow destructive fishing methods to become issues (Ω). The government attempted to hinder destructive fishing in the bay by force for some time in the early 2000s (α) but this measure did not help the situation. As expressed by Bryceson (2002, pp35), “the Fisheries Division and the Marine Police of Tanzania were ineffective in preventing the use of dynamite in spite of countless proclamations over many years that they would stop it”. The use of force does not induce learning (e.g. Berkes and Folke 1998) and may cause a further distancing between actors in the system, as was expressed in the discontent among fishermen in this study (K- Ω). Fishing continued in the prohibited areas, while distrust and dislike for
the government grew among fishermen, and the system has remained in an undesirable configuration.
Presently, fishermen are being physically excluded from activities in close proximity to the islands, though allowed in other locations (Marine Parks and Reserves, pers. comm.). The protected areas have seen some improvement in species diversity and richness compared to other areas in the bay (r) (Ian Bryceson, pers. comm., pers. obs.).
5.1.3 Coastal Zone Management
Though ICM has not been used for development of resource management institutions in Msasani, the history of this approach to management of coastal resources forms an important panarchial dimension for future developments. The focus toward ICM by national organisations such as NEMC, MNRT, MoE, TCMP, and international organisations such as USAID, UNEP, WWF and IUCN gives indications of adaptive responses to issues in coastal management worldwide and in Tanzania (α). ICM contrasts with “blueprint” development models that emphasised technological transfers and top-down approaches, which have often proved detrimental to local communities. An example is the NORAD-funded Mbegani fisheries project in Bagamoyo in the 1970s and 1980s, which proved detrimental to the coastal fisheries as it was based on a technology transfer that could not be sustained (Ω). As such responses to earlier development “aid” have been observed scientific and governmental organisations are seeing the need to step down their involvement toward becoming knowledge centres where directives can be given in early stages, but function more as consultants when expert advice is needed (α) (Bryceson 2002).
This change toward ICM illustrates adaptive capacity within government institutions, and opens for adaptive capacities within communities (α). Community based learning, planning and project implementations, where existing communal institutions for resource management are central improves the adaptive capacity of local SESs (α). As communities use their expert knowledge on coastal resource use issues, and form the integral part of learning and adaptation, they accumulate the potential to become equipped for response to environmental, societal and market changes in the future (α). An example is the community participation in the management of Mafia Island Marine Park, where dialogue with fishing communities was used to initiate sustainable resource use practices, a project which has strong support in the community (α-K).